THE 

WINE  PRESS 


AND 


THE  CELLAR. 


A  MANUAL  FOR 
THE  WINE-MAKER  AND  THE  CELLAR-MAN. 


BY   E.  H  .    RIXFORD. 


SAN  FRANCISCO  : 
PAYOT,  UPHAM  &  CO. 


NEW  YORK  : 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND. 


1883. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1883,  by 

E.    H.   RIXFORD, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


C.  W.  GORDON, 

Steam  Book  and  Job  Pri  nter, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 


PREFACE. 


IN  1876  the  Mission  grape  sold  in  California  for  from  $7.50  to 
per  ton,  and  foreign  varieties  for  from  $14  to  $18  per  ton, 
and  consequently  many  vineyardists  in  districts  remote  from 
the  market  turned  their  hogs  into  the  vineyard  to  gather  the 
fruit.  At  this  time  farmers  concluded  that  it  would  not  pay  to 
grow  grapes,  and  the  vines  were  rooted  out  of  many  vineyards, 
and  the  land  devoted  to  the  production  of  more  profitable  crops. 
In  1878,  'however,  the  prices  were  better,  and  the  Mission  grape 
brought  from  $12  to  $14  per  ton,  and  the  foreign  varieties  from 
$22  to  $26,  and  under  a  growing  demand  for  California  wines, 
the  wine  makers  in  the  counties  of  Sonoma  and  Napa  have  paid 
during  the  past  three  seasons  of  1880,  1881,  and  1882,  prices 
ranging  from  $16  to  $22  per  ton  for  Mission,  and  from  $22  to 
$35  for  other  foreign  varieties,  and  in  some  cases  even  as  high  as 
$40  per  ton  for  wine  grapes  of  the  best  varieties;  the  extremes  in 
prices  depending  upon  the  activity  of  the  competition  in  the 
different  localities.  Although  in  California  we  are  accustomed 
to  speak  of  the  "Mission  grape"  and  the  "foreign  varieties"  in 
contradistinction,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  for  the  benefit  of 
other  than  California  readers,  that  the  "  Mission"  is  undoubtedly 
a  grape  of  European  origin,  and  was  cultivated  by  the  Spanish 
priests  at  the  missions  existing  in  the  country  at  the  advent  of 
the  Americans,  and  hence  the  name.  And  notwithstanding  the 
existence  of  our  grape,  Vitis  Calif  arnica,  the  names  "native"  and 
"California  grape"  have  been  applied  to  the  Mission,  but  the 
word  "foreign"  is  never  used  in  describing  it. 

The  increase  in  the  price  of  grapes  has  followed  closely  upon 
the  increase  in  the  demand  for  our  wines,  and  the  production  has 
kept  pace  with  the  demand. 


£64-96 


vi  PREFACE. 

The  annual  shipments  of  wine  and  brandy  from  California, 
commencing  with  1875,  according  to  the  reports  published  from 
time  to  time,  are  as  follows,  in  gallons: 

Year.  Wine.  Brandy. 

1875 1,031,507 42,318 

1876 1,115,045. _ 59,993 

1877 1,462,792 138,992 

1878 _.1,812,159 129,119 

1879 2,155,944 163,892 

1880 2,487,353 189,098 

1881 2,845,365 209,677 

The  figures  for  1882,  as  published,  are  larger  than  those  for 
1881,  but  the  figures  furnished  by  Mr.  Stone,  the  statistician  of 
the  Merchants  Exchange,  give  wine  2,721,428,  brandy,  218,792; 
from  which  I  am  led  to  believe  that  those  for  1881  are  too  large. 

The  total  production  of  wine  for  1878  has  been  stated  to  be 
from  6,000,000  to  7,000,000  gallons,  for  1879, 7,790,000,  for  1880, 
10,000,000  to  12,000,000  gallons.  Notwithstanding  the  increased 
acreage  of  our  vineyards,  the  product  in  1881  fell  off  one  or  two 
million  gallons,  and  in  the  second  annual  report  of  the  State  Viti- 
cultural  Commission,  just  published,  the  loss  is  estimated  at  one- 
third  of  the  crop,  making  the  product  9,000,000  gallons,  or  a 
little  less.  That  of  1882  is  about  10,000,000  gallons. 

In  1880  we  had  about  60,000  acres  of  vineyards  in  the  State, 
and  according  to  Mr.  Haraszthy's  report  as  President  of  the 
Viticultural  Commission,  contained  in  the  report  of  the  com- 
mission last  mentioned,  the  increase  during  the  first  two  years 
after  the  first  organization  of  the  commission  in  1880,  amounts 
to  40,000  acres.  Since  the  date  of  his  report,  April  19, 1882,  the 
acreage  must  have  been  largely  increased,  and  making  a  liberal 
allowance  for  errors,  we  must  have  at  least  100,000  acres  in  vine- 
yards in  the  State  at  the  present  time,  which  ought  to  produce, 
at  a  small  estimate,  20,000,000  gallons  of  wine  in  five  years  from 
now,  and  in  five  years  more,  with  the  increased  product  from 
the  greater  age  of  the  vines,  and  from  those  planted  in  the 
meantime,  the  yield  ought  to  be  doubled. 


PREFACE.  Tii 

Among  those  who  are  now  planting  vineyards  are  many  who 
have  had  no  experience  in  wine  making;  and  in  order  that 
such  may  have  the  advantage  of  the  experience  of  those  of  other 
countries  who  have  spent  their  whole  lives  in  perfecting  the  art, 
and  have  had  the  benefit  of  the  knowledge  derived  from  genera- 
tions before  them,  the  author  has  prepared  the  following  work, 
in  which  he  has  attempted  to  lay  before  the  reader  an  account  of 
the  methods  followed  in  those  portions  of  Europe,  especially 
France,  where  the  finest  wines  of  the  world  are  produced. 

What  is  here  given  is  the  result  of  research  on  the  part  of  the 
author  chiefly  for  his  own  benefit;  and  in  going  over  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  of  wine  making,  he  failed  to  find  a  work  in 
the  English  language  which  is  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the 
practical  wine  maker,  or  one  who  intends  to  become  such.  There 
are  many  good  books  in  the  French  language,  and,  in  fact,  the 
principal  works  on  the  subject  are  to  be  found  in  that  language. 
But  the  authors  of  many  of  them  have  hobbies,  and  the  practice 
indicated  in  a  certain  connection  by  one  often  differs  from  that 
pointed  out  by  another.  It,  therefore,  became  necessary  to  com- 
pare the  writings  of  various  authors,  and  where  they  differed  in 
points  of  practice,  to  try  and  find  out  the  reason  therefor.  This 
was  not  always  an  easy  task;  but  the  author  confidently  hopes 
that  the  beginner  will  always  find  a  safe  course  pointed  out  to 
him  in  the  following  pages,  and  that  the  experienced  viniculturist 
will  have  brought  to  his  mind  many  things  forgotten  in  the  mul- 
titude of  affairs,  and  the  experimentalist,  to  whom  we  all  are 
looking  for  further  light,  will  here  find  many  hints  which  may 
assist  him  in  finding  out  what  are  the  best  methods  under  the 
conditions  in  which  we  find  ourselves  in  the  infancy  of  this 
absorbing  industry. 

What  forcibly  strikes  one  in  reading  the  works  of  different 
authors  on  the  subject  of  vinification  is,  that,  notwithstanding 
the  variations  in  the  methods,  there  are  but  few  material  differ- 
ences in  the  practices  in  different  localities  in  making  a  given 
kind  of  wine.  It  is  true  that  one  method  makes  a  red  wine,  a 
different  one  makes  a  white  wine,  that  grapes  of  one  degree  of 


viii  PREFACE. 

ripeness  and  the  corresponding  practice  in  vinification  produces 
a  sweet  wine,  and  another  a  dry  wine,  but  the  author  is  convinced 
that  the  method  and  practice  which  will  produce  the  best  result 
in  a  given  case  in  one  locality  will  also  produce  the  best  result  in 
any  other. 

If  it  is  found  that  in  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  France 
it  is  insisted  that  the  casks  be  always  kept  full,  and  that  in  Spain 
they  are  left  with  a  vacant  space,  it  will  also  be  found  that  this 
practice  depends  upon  the  alcoholic  strength  and  robustness  of 
the  wine.  When  the  grapes  of  the  more  northern  regions  are 
artificially  matured  till  their  saccharine  strength  approaches  that 
of  grapes  of  more  southern  climes,  then  the  wine  made  from 
their  must  may  safely  be  treated  according  to  methods  prevailing 
in  the  latter  regions.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  grapes  of  hot 
countries  are  gathered  as  soon  as  their  must  indicates  a  density 
of  20  to  24  per  cent.,  the  wine  made  from  them  would  be  abso- 
lutely ruined,  if  treated  as  the  wine  from  overripe  grapes,  and  it 
must  be  cared  for  as  the  weaker  wines  of  the  northern  climes. 

The  essentials,  then,  of  good  wine  making,  which  include  the 
treatment  in  the  cellar,  are  everywhere  the  same,  and  they  only 
vary  with  the  varieties  of  wine  that  are  to  be  produced. 

The  general  climate  of  California  corresponds  in  many  respects 
with  that  of  the  more  southern  wine-producing  regions  of  Europe; 
and  the  percentage  of  sugar  carried  in  the  grapes  grown  in  the 
southern  and  interior  portions  of  our  State  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  the  musts  of  those  regions.  The  musts  produced  in  the 
central  coast  counties  and  the  bay  counties  of  the  State,  in  aver- 
age seasons,  equal,  if  they  do  not  exceed,  in  density  the  musts 
of  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  France  in  their  very  best 
seasons. 

The  following  tables  will  afford  the  figures  necessary  for  a  com- 
parison between  our  wines  and  those  of  other  countries,  as  to 
alcoholic  strength  and  acidity.  The  first  table  is  useful  as  illus- 
trating an  advance  in  wine  making  in  this  State.  The  earlier 
wine  makers,  guided  by  the  experience  derived  from  residence  in 
the  northern  viticultural  regions  of  Europe,  or  by  the  information 


PREFACE.  ix 

from  writers  of  those  countries,  allowed  their  grapes  to  arrive  at 
an  advanced  state  of  maturity  without  considering  the  different 
conditions  of  climate.  Musts,  therefore,  that  were  fit  only  for 
sweet  wines,  were  treated  according  to  dry  wine  methods,  and  no 
wonder  they  were  found  heady,  used  as  table  wines,  with  so  high 
a  percentage  of  alcohol. 

The  second  table  shows  that  we  have  learned  to  produce  lighter 
wines,  which  means,  not  only  that  we  are  growing  grapes  that 
carry  less  sugar  than  the  Mission,  but  chiefly  that  we  do  not 
allow  the  berries  to  become  overripe,  dried  up,  under  the  ardent 
rays  of  our  constant  sun. 

The  first  figures  are  from  a  paper  read  by  the  late  Major  Snyder 
before  the  Napa  Wine  Growers'  Association,  and  published  in 
the  Rural  Press,  August  3, 1871,  Vol.  IV,  p.  66. 

Color.  Name  of  Maker.  Year.  Vol.  per  cent,  of  Alcohol. 

White Craig 1867__Foreign  grapes 14.4 

"     "    1870. .Mission 13.4 

11     Dresel  &  Gundlach_.1861 14.4 

"     "  __1870 13.3 

"     "  _.1862_ 12.5 

"     "  1.1867. 13.6 

"     J.B.  Snyder 1865. .Mission 12.5 

"  "     1866 12.6 

"  "     1867 13.3 

"  "     1868 12.8 

"     A.  Jb\  Haraszthy 1871__Foreign 11.5 

"     "  1870__       "       12.6 

Bed     Buena  Vista  Ass'n___1866 16.5 

White "  "         ___1871 11.5 

Bed     "  "         ___1871 12.6 

White H.   Winkle 1869__Mission 13.2 

"     ____          "         1871 _.      "        12.5 

"     L.  Goss 1871__Zinfandel 12.8 

The  following  figures  are  from  the  Beport  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture  of  the  United  States,  for  1880,  report  of  the 
Chemist.  It  will  be  observed  that  where  the  name  is  followed 
by  a  *,  it  is  that  of  the  Eastern  dealer,  and  not  that  of  the  maker. 


x  PREFACE. 

DRY   BED     WINES. 

Per  cent,  by  Total  acid 

Name.  vol.  of  alcohol.  Glucose,   as  tartaric.  Maker. 

Sonoma  Mission,  '79__10.03__None__  .722__Gretsch  &  Mayer.* 
Zinfandel,  79_  9.78__Trace  _  .693__     " 

Mission 9.29__   do  __  .917__B.  Dreyfus  &  Co. 

Zinfandel 11.35__  do   .__  .768__ 

Zinfandel, '78 10.30__   do   __  .825__Dresel  &  Co. 

Zinfandel, '79 11.08__  do   ._  .798__     " 

Zinfandel 12.31__   do   __  .814_.Geo.  Hamlin&Co.* 

California  Claret 10.56_.  do   __  .903 

Zinfandel __. _13.24__  0.18..  .726 

DEY    WHITE    WINES. 

White  Hock 1T.37..  0.09__  .855 - 

White  Hock 12.87__  0.09__  .767 

Muscatel 13.34__  0.12_.  .767 

Sonoma  Hock 12.05__  0.13..  .422_.Perkins,Stern&Co* 

Riesling 11.26__Trace  _  .846__Dresel  &  Co. 

Hock 11.35__   do  __  .785__      " 

Dry  Muscat 11.44__   do   __  .619__Dreyfus  &  Co. 

Zinfandel 11.26__  do   ._  .590__      " 

Kiesling 12.05__   do   __  .696_.      " 

Gutedel 11.70__   do   __  .756__      " 

Hock 9.70__   do  __  .723__      " 

Sonoma  Mission,  '78__10.56__    do   __  .619..Gretsch  &  Mayer.* 
«       Riesling. '77(?)13.15__    do   _.  .695..       " 
'79__13.15__    do   __  .575__       " 
Mission,  '79__10.38__    do   __  .619__ 
Gutedel,  '79—11.87  —    do  __  .589__       " 

Dry  Muscat '74(?) 12.40__   do   __  .816__       " 

Zinfandel,  '78 11.96__    do   __  .761. _       " 

'79 11.00..    do   _.  .740__       " 

PORT.  SWEET  WINES. 

California  Port 21.89__  8.60__  .790 

"    20.89__  5.78__  .510__Kohler  &  Frohling. 

"   18.88--  4.49__  .755. .Dreyfus  &  Co. 


PREFACE.  xi 

Per  cent,  by  Total  acid 

Name.  vol.  of  alcohol.  Glucose,  as  tartaric.  Maker. 

California  Port 19.87_.  5.88_.  .370..       " 

"   15.49..  8.60__  .486_  .Perkins,  Stern &Co 

'Sunny  Slope" 15.12__11.57__  .433__ 

Los  Angeles 16.52__11.39__  .$08__Gretsch  &  Mayer.* 

SHERRY. 

California  Sherry 17.96__     .61__  .532 

"       16.15__   2.45__  .721__Dreyfus&Co. 

"       16.80__  2.20_.  .573.. 

CHAMPAGNES. 

'Grand Prize" med. dry  12. 49 __  8.21. _  .821__Arpad  Haraszthy. 
"Eclipse,"  extra  dry__11.87_.  6.51._  .885_. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

Gerke's  White 14.74..  2.21__  .  673  __ Henry  Gerke. 

Sweet  Muscatel 18.58__25.37__  . 753 _ .Perkins,  Stern &Co 

22.36._11.59__  .366._Dreyfus  &  Co, 

22.46__16.94__  .381.. 

Los  Angeles  Muscatel_17.08__13.44__  .533_.Gretsch  &  Mayer.* 

Angelica 11.79__12.48__  .489 

«'      13.90__13.25__  .347__Perkins,  Stern&Co 

"      18.14..14.81..  .430__Dreyfus  &  Co. 

"      18.78._16.20__  .466__Gretsch  &  Mayer.* 

California   Malaga 17.70__  8. 59_ _  .659_ .Henry  Gerke. 

What  is  particularly  striking  in  the  figures  last  quoted,  is  the 
remarkably  high  percentage  of  acid,  which  far  exceeds  what  we 
had  hitherto  supposed  the  acidity  of  our  wines  to  be.  Yet  as  a 
large  proportion  of  the  total  acids  was  volatile,  it  may  be  that  the 
wines  had  contracted  acidity  from  improper  methods  of  keeping. 

From  Prof.  Hilgard's  report  of  the  work  done  in  the  viticul- 
tural  laboratory  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University 
of  California,  during  the  years  1881  and  1882,  we  extract 
Table  V  given  in  the  appendix.  The  figures  for  the  averages 
are  our  own.  This  report  contains  much  valuable  and  interesting 
information  regarding  the  work  done  in  the  laboratory,  and  gives 
many  details  of  the  analyses  of  these  wines,  which  the  limits  of 


xii  PREFACE. 

this  volume  will  not  permit  us  to  give  in  full.  And  those  who 
wish  to  see  the  results  of  the  most  complete  analysis  of  California 
wines  ever  before  made,  are  referred  to  the  report  itself. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  average  total  acidity  of  the  different 
wines  mentioned  in  the  table  is  much  lower  than  that  found  by 
the  chemist  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  wines  in 
this  table  were  furnished  by  the  producer  in  nearly  every  case,  a 
few  of  them  having  been  produced  at  the  University,  and  were 
undoubtedly  pure,  and  in  a  fair  condition,  as  samples  of  badly 
kept  wine  would  not  likely  be  furnished  by  the  maker  for  the 
purpose  of  analysis;  and  the  condition  of  those  analyzed  by  the 
chemist  at  Washington  is,  at  least,  doubtful. 

From  analyses. by  R.  Fresenius  and  E.  Borgman,  tabulated  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  London,  for  April,  1883, 
from  Zeits.  Anal.  Chem.,  XXII,  46-58,  we  extract  the  following 
figures,  the  alcoholic  strength  being  reduced  to  volume  per  cent, 
as  nearly  as  could  be  done  from  the  per  cent,  by  weight  in  volume 
without  the  specific  gravity : 


Red 

White 

White 

Red 

Main. 

Main  . 

Hocks. 

French. 

French. 

Moselle. 

f  Max. 

11 

.76 

12 

.54 

12 

.77 

12 

.17 

11.52 

10.77 

Alcohol  _ 

•]  Min. 

11 

.73 

11 

.00 

8 

.00 

11 

.18 

9.91 

8.77 

(  Aver. 

11 

75 

11 

.76 

10 

.83 

11 

.67 

10.58 

10.02 

(  Max. 

.62 

.80 

1 

.01 

.71 

.58 

.95 

Acid  

1  Min. 

.54 

.54 

.48 

.54 

.48 

.64 

(  Aver. 

.58 

.69 

.66 

.62 

.54 

.79 

And  from  the  analyses  given  in  the  work  of  Thudichum  and 
Dupre,  we  deduce  the  following  : 

THIRTY-FIVE     GERMAN    WINES. 

I  Maximum. _14.45      ^  ^  ag     f  Maximum __  .823 
(Average  ___10,00        ar  anc-    (Average  ___  .543 

SIX    FRENCH    CLARETS. 

f  Maximum. _12.38  (  Maximum..  .645 

Alcohol s  Minimum- .10.42      A.ud j  Minimum __  .548 

Average 10.95  (Average .593 


PREFACE.  xiii 

FOUR  BURGUNDIES. 

f  Maximum. .14. 97  (  Maximum. _  .668 

Alcohol -<  Minimum. .11. 54      Acid x  Minimum __  .495 

(Average  __.12.78  (Average  ___  -562 

ELEVEN    SHERRIES. 

(  Maximum__22.75  f  Maximum..  .626 

Alcohol •]  Minimum  _  _  1 7 . 03      Acid -!  Minimum  _  _  .372 

(Average  __ .20.93  (Average .476 

SIX   SO-CALLED   NATURAL   SHERRIES. 

f  Maximum. .18. 87  f  Maximum _.  .510 

Alcohol •]  Minimum __16.60      Acid 4  Minimum..  .397 

(Average 17.37  (Average .454 

ELEVEN    PORT   WINES. 

f  Maximum  _  _  23 . 34  (  Maximum  _  _  .510 

Alcohol •]  Minimum. .18.04      Acid x  Minimum __  .398 

(Average  ...21. 50  ( Average  ...  .424 

TEN    HUNGARIAN  WINES. 

f  Maximum. .14.55  (  Maximum. .  .716 

Alcohol •<  Minimum. .11. 55      Acid -I  Minimum __  .570 

(  Average  ...12.85  (Average .637 

The  analyses  of  many  other  wines  are  given,  and  many  other 
details  which  would  be  of  little  use  to  the  practical  man,  belong- 
ing rather  to  the  domain  of  the  chemistry  of  wines. 

There  is  a  vast  field  open  to  the  wine  maker  of  this  State,  for 
we  have  differences  of  soil  and  climate  suitable  for  the  production 
of  a  wonderful  variety  of  wines.  But  every  man  must  decide  for 
himself  what  kind  of  wine  his  soil  and  situation  are  best  adapted 
to  produce,  and  his  aim  then  should  be  to  produce  the  best  of 
that  kind. 

Thanks  to  the  work  of  the  State  Viticultural  Commission,  we 
are  beginning  to  learn  what  varieties  of  grapes  are  best  suited  to 
the  different  districts  of  the  State.  It  is  true  that  only  a  begin- 
ning has  been  made,  and  the  actual  work  of  experimenting  in 
this  direction  can  only  be  carried  on  by  the  practical  viticulturists 
themselves.  It  is  for  the  Commission  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos, 
and  furnish  for  the  information  of  the  public  the  results  of  the 
labors  of  the  experimenters  in  the  field. 

Through  the  endeavors  of  the  Commission,  and  especially  of 
its  chief  executive  Yiticultural  officer,  Mr.  Charles  A.  Wetmore, 


xiv  PREFACE. 

who  has  an  extended  knowledge  of  the  different  varieties  of  grapes 
grown  in  the  State,  and  where  they  are  produced,  the  viticulturists 
are  beginning  to  compare  notes,  and  an  exchange  of  knowledge  is 
now  going  on,  which  without  the  Commission  would  be  impossible. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter  into  the  details 
of  vine  planting,  or  to  point  out  what  particular  varieties  of 
grapes  should  be  planted  in  the  different  sections,  and  probably 
the  time  to  produce  a  work  which  would  convey  definite  and 
satisfactory  information  on  the  latter  subject  has  not  yet  arrived. 
As  fast  as  reliable  information  is  acquired,  it  will  undoubtedly  be 
made  known  by  the  Commission,  and  every  intended  vine  grower 
should  carefully  study  its  reports,  as  well  as  to  keep  himself 
familiar  with  the  discussions  of  the  local  viticultural  societies,  and 
those  of  the  general  conventions. 

If  every  grower  in  the  State  will  only  devote  a  portion  of  his 
ground  to  the  cultivation  of  the  choicest  varieties  of  grapes, 
making  sure  that  he  knows  what  he  is  cultivating,  will  use  the 
best  methods  of  vinification,  preserve  each  kind  of  wine  by  itself, 
or  keep  a  careful  record  of  his  blends,  and  will  age  and  rear  the 
different  products  according  to  the  best  and  most  intelligent 
methods,  the  writer  confidently  expects  that  favored  spots  will 
be  found  in  time  which  will  produce  wines  that  will  compare 
favorably  with  the  fine  wines  of  Europe;  and  we  may  even  ven- 
ture to  hope  that  some  lucky  individual  will  find  that  he  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  vineyard  that  will  make  his  name  famous  as  the 
producer  of  a  grand  wine  equal  to  the  most  renowned  wines  of 
the  world. 

The  writers  lays  claim  to  but  very  little  originality  in  the 
the  following  pages.  What  the  intended  wine  maker  wants  is 
not  new,  untried  theories,  but  the  results  of  the  experience  of 
others  who  have  already  labored  in  the  field,  in  order  that  he 
may  not  spend  his  time  in  inventing  methods  which,  later  he 
learns,  have  already  been  tried  by  the  laborers  before  him. 

In  this  connection,  the  author  makes  his  acknowledgments  to 
the  following  authors  and  their  productions,  as  well  as  to  others 
mentioned  in  the  body  of  the  work.  And  if,  in  some  cases,  he 


PREFACE.  xv 

has  failed  to  give  credit  where  it  is  due,  it  is  because  the  informa- 
tion remains,  but  the  source  is  forgotten. 

A.  Du  BREUIL,  Les  Vignobles  et  les  Arbres  et  Fruits  a  Cidre, 
Paris,  1875. 

DR.  JULES  GUYOT,  Culture  de  la  Vigne  et  Vinification,  Paris, 
1861. 

HENRI  MACHARD,  Traite  Pratique  sur  les  Vins,  Bensancon,  1874. 

RAIMOND  BOIREAU,  Culture  de  la  Vigne,  Traitement  des  Vins, 
Vinification,  Distillation,  etc.,  2  vols.,  Bordeaux,  1876. 

A.  HARASZTHY,  Grape  Culture,  Wines,  and  Wine  Making,  New 
York,  1862,  including  translations  of  JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  on 
Wine  Making,  and  Dr.  L.  GALL,  Improvement  in  Wine  Making. 

L.  PASTEUR,  on  Fermentation,  Annales  de  Chimie,  3  Series, 
Vol.  LVIII,  P.  330. 

JOSEPH  BOUSSINGAULT,  Sur  la  Fermentation  des  Fruits  a  Noyau 
Annales  de  Chimie,  4  Series,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  210. 

M.  BOUSSINGAULT,  Experiences  pour  constater  la  perte  en  sucre 
dans  le  sucrage  du  moat  de  du  marc  de  raisin.  Annales  de 
Chimie,  5  Series,  Vol.  VII,  p.  433. 

ANDRE   PELLICOT,  Le  Vigneron  Provencal,  Montpellier,  1866. 

HENRY  VIZITELLI,  Facts  about  Sherry,  London,  1876;  Facts 
about  Port  and  Madeira,  London,  1880. 

J.  L.  W.  THUDICHUM  and  AUGUST  DUPRE,  Origin,  Nature,  and 
Varieties  of  Wine,  London,  1872. 

N.  BASSET,  Guide  Theorique  et  Pratique  du  Frabricant  d' 
Alcool  et  du  Distillateur. 

J.  J.  GRIFFIN,  Chemical  Testing  of  Wines  and  Liquors,  London . 

L.  F.  DUBIEF,  Traite  Complet  Theorique  et  Pratique  de  Vinifica- 
tion ou  Art  de  Faire  du  Vin,  4  Ed.,  Paris. 

P.  SCHUTZENBERGER,  On  Fermentation,  International  Scientific 
Series,  New  York,  1876. 

E.  J.  MAUMENE,  Traite  Theorique  et  Pratique  du  Travail  des 
Vins,  Paris,  1874. 

M.  W.  MAIGNE,  Nouveau  Manuel  Complet  du  Sommclier  et  du 
Marchand  de  Vins  (Manuels-Roret),  Paris,  1874. 


xvi  PREFACE. 

DON  PEDRO  VERDAD,  From  Vineyard  to  Decanter,  a  Book  about 
Sherry,  London,  1876. 

GEN.  E.  D.  KEYES,  Letter  to  Major  J.  K.  Snyder,  on  Sherry 
making,  published  in  San  Francisco  Daily  Evening  Bulletin,  May 
29,  1877. 

PROF.  E.  W.  HILGARD,  Report  of  work  done  in  the  Viticultural 
Laboratory  under  the  charge  of  F.  W.  Morse,  University  of 
Calif ornia,College  of  Agriculture;  Report  of  1882,  State  Printer, 
Sacramento,  1883. 

August,  1883. 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE . 

Prices  of  grapes  in  California  from  1876  to  1882,  the  Mission  grape,  v;  annual 
shipments  of  wine  and  brandy  from  California,  annual  production  of  wine, 
acreage  of  vines,  probable  future  production  of  wine,  vi;  objects  of  this  book, 
want  of  works  on  the  subject  in  English,  method  of  vinification  varies  with 
kind  of  wine  rather  than  with  locality  or  climate,  vii;  climate  of  California  and 
density  of  must  similar  to  those  of  southern  Europe,  viii;  comparison  between 
California  and  European  wines,  viii-xiii;  State  Viticultural  Commission,  xiii. 
advice  to  grape  growers,  xiv;  acknowledgments  by  the  author,  list  of 
authorities,  xv. 

CHAPTER    I. 

GATHERING    THE   GRAPES — MATURITY. 

Utensils  for  picking,  number  of  pickers  necessary,  when  to  commence,  I ; 
when  to  gather,  successive  gathering,  2;  sorting  the  grapes,  requisite  degree 
of  maturity,  3;  signs  of  ripeness,  gathering  before  complete  maturity,  4;  gath- 
ering after  complete  maturity,  ripeness  according  to  required  strength,  5. 

CHAPTER  II. 

MUST. 

Composition,  grape  sugar,  6;  must  scale,  7;  testing  for  sugar,  8;  correcting  for 
temperature,  10;  sugar  and  alcohoi,  alcohol  in  wine,  n. 

CHAPTER  III. 

SUGARING    AND    WATERING    MUST. 

Sugaring,  13;  nothing  gained  by  adding  sugar,  15;  cost  of  glucose  wine,  16; 
experiment  with  glucose,  the  use  of  glucose  condemned,  17;  watering,  18. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

STEMMING  AND    CRUSHING. 

Diversity  of  opinion  on  stemming,  effect  of  stemming,  proper  practice,  .20;  to 
estimate  tannin,  stemmers,  21;  how  to  remove  the  stems,  crushing,  methods 
of  crushing,  22;  aerating  the  must,  crushers,  23;  rapidity  of  operation,  special 
practice,  24, 


xviii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 

FERMENTATION— ITS   CAUSES. 

Several  different  kinds  of  fermentation,  alcoholic  fermentation,  the  yeast  plant, 
25;  functions  of  yeast,  normal  conditions  of  the  life  of  yeast,  26;  action  of 
various  chemical  and  physical  agents,  28;  viscous  or  mannitic  fermentation, 
lactic  fermentation,  29;  acetic  fermentation,  30;  origin  of  ferments,  31; 
ALCOHOLIC  FERMENTATION  IN  WINE  MAKING:  vinous  or  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion, sugar,  32;  alcohol  by  weight  and  by  volume,  33;  fermentation,  its 
products,  percent,  sugar  to  per  cent,  alcohol,  different  authors,  34;  limits  of 
sugar  and  spirit,  36;  temperature,  37;  fermenting  houses,  38. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

RED    WINE. 

Coloring  matter,  fermenting  tanks  or  vats,  filling  the  tanks,  39;  open  vats, 
closed  vats,  40;  the  best  practice,  41;  hermetically  sealed  tanks,  practice  in 
the  Medoc,  stirring  the  pomace  in  the  vat,  42;  when  to  draw  from  the  vat,  43; 
the  objections  to  long  vatting,  in  making  fine  wines,  44;  how  to  know  when 
to  draw  from  the  vat,  method  of  drawing  from  the  vat  and  filling  the  casks, 
45;  wine  presses,  46;  pressing  and  press  wine,  special  practice  for  fine  wines, 
TREATMENT  OF  RED  WINES:  insensible  fermentation,  47;  ulling  or  filling  up, 
48;  summary  of  the  rules  for  the  treatment  of  new  red  wines,  50;  treatment  of 
old  red  wines,  51;  summary  of  rules  for  the  care  of  old  red  wines,  53. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

WHITE    WINE. 

Made  from  both  red  and  white  grapes,  differences  between  red  and  white  wine, 
hygienic  effect  of  red  and  white  wine,  54;  process  of  making,  the  barrels, 
filling  the  barrels  during  fermentation,  55;  pressing  and  filling,  different  kinds 
of  white  wine,  dry  white  wines,  mellow  white  wines,  56,  sweet  white  wines, 
grand  white  wines,  57;  treatment  of  white  wines,  to  keep  sweet,  58;  dry  white 
wines,  mellow  white  wines,  59;  summary  of  rules,  racking,  60. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CASKS. 

Different  woods,  oak  wood,  storing  casks,  61;  new  casks,  62;  old  casks,  rinsing 
chain,  visitor  to  examine  the  inside  of  a  cask,  63;  empty  casks,  washing, 
sulphuring  casks,  condition  to  be  examined,  64;  flatness  in  the  cask,  acidity, 
mouldy  casks,  65;  rottenness,  brandy  casks,  caution  as  to  sulphuring,  cask 
borers,  66;  size  of  casks,  67. 


CONTENTS.  xix 

CHAPTER    IX, 

SULPHURING.      ARRESTING    FERMENTATION. 

Sulphuring  casks,  must  and  wine,  sulphurous  oxide  or  sulphur  dioxide,  the' 
sulphurer  or  sulphur  burner,  69;  sulphur  matches  or  bands,  to  sulphur  a 
cask,  70;  to  sulphur  wine,  sulphuring  should  be  avoided  in  certain  cases,  71 1 
arresting  fermentation,  unfermented  must,  prepared  in  two  ways,  72;  clarifica- 
tion and  care  of  unfermented  must,  sulphur  flavor,  73;  other  substances  to 
arrest  fermentation,  burning  alcohol,  aqueous  solution  of  sulphurous  acid, 
bisulphite  of  lime,  74;  salicylic  acid,  75. 

CHAPTER  X. 

AGING. — EFFECTS    OF    VARIOUS    INFLUENCES. 

General  considerations,  how  new  wine  differs  from  old,  development  of  bouquet 
and  flavor,  old  wine,  characteristics  of,  76;  color,  aroma,  flavor,  influences 
which  develop,  also  destroy,  influence  of  the  air,  77;  variations  of  tempera- 
ture, influence  of  heat,  78;  aging  by  heat,  79;  preserving  wine  by  heat,  80; 
influence  of  cold,  treatment  of  frozen  wine,  8i;  influence  of  light,  aging  by 
sunlight,  effect  of  motion  of  voyages,  wines  suitable  for  shipment,  82;  shipping 
new  wine,  83;  other  motions,  aging  by  fining,  aging  generally,  84;  wines 
which  gain  the  most  by  aging  processes,  85. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

GENERAL  TREATMENT — CELLARS. 

Unfortified  or  table  wines,  deposits,  lees,  etc.,  86;  to  prevent  degeneration, 
CELLARS:  temperature,  87;  dampness,  ventilation,  evaporation,  88;  other 
precautions,  supports  for  casks  and  tuns,  89. 

CHAPTER    XII. 

RACKING. 

Object  of,  time  for,  conditions  indispensable  for  a  good  racking,  91;  new  red 
wines,  92;  old  red  wines,  new  white  wines,  first  racking,  subsequent  rackings, 
93;  care  to  be  observed,  other  precautions,  94;  different  methods  of  racking, 
implements  for  tipping  the  cask,  95;  racking  without  contact  with  the  air 
pumps  and  siphons,  97. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

CLARIFICATION— FINING.] 

Objects  of   fining,   different    substances  employed,   gelatinous  substances,    99; 
gelatine,  its  preparation,  isinglass,  fish  glue,  or  ichthyocol,  100;    albuminous 
substances,  blood,  milk,  white  of  eggs,  101;  clarifying  powders,  gum  arabic 
addition    of   salt,  addition   of  alcohol,  addition    of  tannin,  preparation,  102- 
method  of  operation,  implements  for  stirring,  103, 


xx  CONVENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIV  . 

SWEET    WINES — FORTIFIED    WINES; 

Generally,  to  increase  sugar  in  must,  without  fermentation,  care  required,  105; 
clarification,  boiling  must,  left  on  the  lees,  106;  sweet  muscat,  pressing,  marc 
of  sweet  wines,  amount  of  alcohol  to  be  added,  density,  furmint  wine,  107, 
straw  wine,  PORT  WINE  in  the  Upper  Douro:  the  must,  lagars,  etc.,  108, 
treading,  fermentation,  Vizitelli's  description,  109;  lodges  or  storehouses, 
mixing,  port  loses  color  in  wood,  alcoholic  strength  and  loss  by  evaporation, 
112;  MADEIRA:  making,  casks,  treatment,  heating  house,  heating,  113;  solera 
system,  ullage,  alcohol,  114;  SHERRY:  climate,  vintage,  crushing,  gypsum,  115; 
pressing,  116;  plastering,  fermenting,  adding  spirit,  117;  bodegas  or  store- 
houses, changes  in  the  wine,  fino,  oloroso,  basto,  flowers,  118;  sweet  wine, 
vino  dulce,  color  wine,  vino  de  color,  arrope,  119;  mature  wine,  THE  SOLEEA 
SYSTEM:  establishing  a  solera,  120;  standard  soleras  and  their  foundation, 
121;  blending  for  shipment,  122;  formulas,  fining,  124. 

CHAPTER   XV. 

DEFECTS    AND    DISEASES. 

Divided  into  two  classes,  general  considerations,  125;  NATURAL  DEFECTS: 
earthy  flavor,  its  causes,  126;  how  prevented,  treatment,  127;  wild  taste  and 
grassy  flavor,  greenness,  causes,  128;  prevention,  treatment,  129;  roughness, 
causes,  not  a  fault,  disappears  in  time,  how  avoided,  130;  how  removed, 
bitterness,  causes,  how  prevented,  treatment,  taste  of  the  stems,  131;  sourness, 
causes,  how  prevented,  treatment,  132:  alcoholic  weakness,  how  avoided, 
treatment,  133;  want  of  color,  causes,  how  guarded  against,  treatment,  dull, 
bluish,  lead-colored  wine  and  flavor  of  the  lees,  causes,  134;  treatment,  135; 
putrid  decomposition,  causes,  136;  how  avoided,  treatment,  different  defects 
together,  ACQUIRED  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES:  flat  wines,  flowers,  causes,  137; 
prevention,  138;  treatment,  139;  sourness,  acidity,  pricked  wine,  causes,  what 
wine  liable  to,  140;  how  prevented,  treatment,  141;  experiment  before  treat- 
ment, 142;  Machard's  treatment,  other  methods,  144;  cask  flavor,  barrel  flavor, 
causes,  145;  treatment,  146;  mouldy  flavor,  causes,  prevention  and  treatment, 
foreign  flavors,  147;  ropiness,  causes,  treatment,  ropy  wines  in  bottles,  and 
other  treatment,  148;  acrity,  treatment,  bitterness,  149;  treatment,  two  kinds 
according  to  Maumene,  150;  fermentation,  taste  of  the  lees,  yeasty  flavor,  151 ; 
how  prevented,  treatment,  degeneration,  putrid  fermentation,  duration  of 
different  wines,  152;  treatment,  153. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

WINE     IN      BOTTLES. 

When  ready  for  bottling,  how  long  to  remain  in  wood,  154;  how  prepared  for 
bottling,  the  most  favorable  time  for  bottling,  155;  bottles,  156;  filling 


CONTENTS.  xxi 

the  bottles,  157;  corks,  158;  corking  machines,  159;  preparation  of  the  corks, 
driving  in  corks,  160;  sealing  corks,  sealing  wax,  applying  the  same,  coloring 
same,  161;  capsules,  capsuling,  piling  bottles,  162;  racks  and  bins  for  bottles, 
164;  treatment  of  wine  in  bottles,  fermentation  in  bottles,  165;  deposits  and 
turbidity,  1 66;  bitterness  and  acrity,  ropiness,  degeneration  and  putridity,  167; 
decantation,  168;  operation,  instrument,  169. 

0 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

CUTTING    OR    MIXINCx    WINES. 

Most  French  wines  mixed,  when  necessary,  effect  of,  171;  wines  of  same  nature 
should  be  used,  fine  wines,  173;  ordinary  wines,  must  be  allowed  sufficient 
time,  large  quantities,  new  and  old  wine,  green  wines,  174;  white  and  red 
wines,  diseased  wines,  mixing  grapes,  precaution,  175. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

WINE    LEES,    MARC,    AND    PIQUETTE. 

Pomace  and  lees  often  placed  in  the  still,  WINE  LEES:  the  lees  should  be  cared 
for,  quantity  of  wine  in  lees,  constituents  of  dry  lees,  analysis,  vary, 
176;  treatment  of  lees,  177;  extraction  of  wine  from  the  lees,  178;  fining  the 
wine  from  the  lees,  179;  red  wine  from  lees,  white  wine  from  lees,  pressing 
the  sediment,  180;  use  of  dry  lees,  MABC  OB  POMACE — PIQUETTE:  unfermented 
marc  of  white  wine  or  of  red  wine  not  ^entirely  fermented,  fermented  marc  of 
red  wine,  washing  the  marc,  Pezeyre's  method,  183. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE    COMPOSITION   OF   WINE. 

Generally,  185;  table  of  substances  recognized,  186;  alcohol,  estimate  of,  187; 
ethers,  sugar,  estimate  of,  190;  mannite,  mucilage  and  mellowness,  191;  pectose, 
pectin,  fatty  matter,  glycerin,  coloring  matter,  aldehydes,  192;  acids,  tartaric, 
malic,  citric,  pectic,  tannic,  carbonic,  193;  acetic,  lactic,  valeric,  succinic, 
total  acids, -the  bouquet,  artificial  bouquet,  194;  Maumene's  experiment,  I95» 
different  substances  employed,  iris,  196;  strawberry,  gillyflower  or  stockgilly, 
197;  vine  flowers,  mignonette,  nutmeg,  bitter  almonds  and  fruit  pits, 
sassafras,  198;  other  aromas,  effects,  199. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

GENERAL    CHAPTER — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Proportion  of  juice  to  marc,  200;  proportion  of  wine  to  grapes,  201;.  wooden  and 
metal  utensils,  202;  cleanliness,  203;  different  cellar  utensils,  204,  205; 
USEFUL  RULES:  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  a  given  number  of  gallons  of  a 
liquid,  for  reducing  must,  for  sugaring  must,  206;  for  fortifying  and  reducing 
wines,  to  reduce  with  water,  207;  to  reduce  with  weaker  or  fortify  with 


xxii  CONTENTS. 

stronger  wine  or  alcohol,  PLASTERING,  208;  common  practice  in  Spain  and 
southern  France,  objects,  chemical  effects,  209;  effects  on  health,  210;  plaster- 
ing sherry,  quantity  used,  212;  by  adding  water,  sherry  flavor,  213. 

APPENDIX. 

Sugar  tables:  Table  I,  Balling's  degrees  (per  cent,  sugar),  corresponding 
degrees  Baume,  and  specific  gravity  at  63^°  F.,  215;  Table  II,  Baume's  degrees, 
corresponding  degrees  Balling  (per  cent,  sugar),  and  specific  gravity  at  63 1°  F. 
216;  Table  III,  Baume's  degrees  and  corresponding  per  cent,  sugar,  at  60°  F. 
217;  Alcohol  table,  Table  IV,  showing  percent,  by  volume  for  every  one-tenth 
per  cent,  from  o.i  1030  per  cent.,  corresponding  per  cent,  by  weight,  and 
specific  gravity,  218-19;  Table  V,  showing  amount  of  alcohol  and  acid  in 
different  California  wines,  220-23. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  Page. 

1.  HYDROMETER 8 

2.  HYDROMETER  JAR 9 

3.  WOODEN   STEMMER 21 

4.  CRUSHER 23 

5.  FERMENTING  VAT 41 

6.  WINEPRESSES..... 46 

7'     X  ULLING  POTS I  49 

£'      I    Z  FUNNELS X  49 

ii.'     RINSING  CHAIN ..]' 

12.  VISITOR  FOR  EXAMINING  THE  INSIDE  OF  A  CASK....  f 

13.  SULPHURER 

14.  MAUMENE'S  SULPHURER 

15.  CASK  AND  SUPPORT '.  89 

16.  1ACKFOK  TIPPING  A  CASK ) 

17.  FORK  FOR  TIPPING  A  CASK \  95 

J8'      |  IMPLEMENTS  FOR  TIPPING  A  CASK •; I  96 

20!     A  METHOD  OF  RACKING J 

22*     }   SIPHONS f  97 

23!     ROTARY  FORCE  PUMP 98 

24.  )  •) 

25.  [-IMPLEMENTS  FOR  STIRRING I  103 

26.  )  J 

27.  BOTTLE  WASHER   j 

28.  j.   BOTTLE  DRAINERS f  J56 

RESERVOIRS  FOR  FILLING  BOTTLES....                                    .  157 

BUNG  SCREW 158 

CORKING  MACHINES 159 

CORKING  MACHINES  AND  NEEDLES ? 160 

PINCERS  FOR  REMOVING  WAX )  , 

CAPSULER 

PILING  BOTTLES 163 

j-    BOTTLE  RACKS X  164 

BURROW'S  SLIDER  BIN..  165 

DECANTING  BASKET ) 

CORKSCREWS I  169 

DECANTING  INSTRUMENT.. 


ERRATA 


On  page  216,  Table  II,  read  63%°  F,  instead  of  93%°  F. 

On  page  218,  Table  IV,  opposite  13.6  by  volume,  read  11.00  per  cent,  by 
weight,  instead  of  10.10. 

On  page  219,  Table  IV,  opposite  17.03  by  weight,  read  20.9  by  volume, 
instead  of  20.7;    and   opposite   23.4    by  volume,  read  .97251    specific   gravity, 
instead  of  .96251. 
• 

On  page  222  read  Tienturier  instead  of  Tenturier. 


THE  WINE  PRESS  AND  THE  C 

CHAPTEK    I. 

GATHERING    THE    GRAPES MATUJ 

The  first  step  in  wine  making  proper,  is  the 
grapes,  or  "  picking/'  as  it  is  usually  termed  in  California. 

Utensils  for  Picking. — Knives,  scissors,  and  pruning  shears 
are  used  to  cut  the  stems,  and  every  one  will  adopt  the  tool  that 
he  finds  most  convenient  in  practice;  but  if  the  berries  are  in- 
clined to  drop  off,  scissors  or  pruning  shears  are  preferable. 
Some  authors  give  minute  descriptions  of  receptacles  of  various 
sizes  and  forms  in  which  to  gather  the  grapes,  but  the  practice  in 
that  respect  usually  followed  in  this  State  will  be  found  the  most 
convenient.  The  grapes  here  are  generally  picked  directly  into 
boxes  holding  about  fifty  pounds.  The  box  is  provided  with  an 
oblong  hole  at  each  end  near  the  top,  or  three  or  four  holes  bored 
with  an  inch  auger,  by  which  the  picker  can  easily  move  it  from 
vine  to  vine,  and  one  man  can  carry  it  with  both  hands  to  the 
wagon.  These  boxes  are  piled  on  the  wagon  without  emptying, 
transported  to  the  wine  house,  and  brought  back  empty,  to  be 
filled  again. 

Number  of  Pickers  necessary— When  to  Commence.— 
There  ought  to  be  a  sufficient  number  of  men  employed  in  pick- 
ing to  fill  at  least  one  fermenting  vat  in  a  day,  in  makijig  red 
wine.  If,  however,  circumstances  render  this  impossible,  it 
would  be  well  to  pile  up  the  grapes  on  a  good  clean  floor,  under 
cover,  till  sufficient  are  gathered  to  fill  the  tank,  and  then  crush 
them,  and  fill  the  tank  in  one  day.  (See  Red  Wine.)  Picking 
ought  to  commence  as  soon  as  the  grapes  are  of  a  fair  average 
ripeness,  beginning  with  the  earliest  and  ending  with  the  latest 
variety.  In  the  chapter  on  musts,  we  shall  endeavor  to  indicate 
the  requisite  maturity  of  the  grapes,  and  it  will  there  appear  that 
they  may  become  too  ripe  by  remaining  too  long  on  the  vine,  so 
that  it  is  very  important  that  a  sufficient  number  of  pickers  should 
be  employed  to  finish  the  gathering  as  promptly  as  possible,  and 
before  too  much  sugar  is  developed.  (See  Musts.) 


2  GATHERING   THE  GRAPES. 

When  to  Gather. —  It  is  of  little  importance  at  what  time 
of  the  day  the  grapes  are  picked,  whether  in  the  cool  of  the 
morning  or  the  heat  of  mid-day,  or  whether  the  dew  is  on 
or  off,  as  long  as  they  are  ripe.  In  some  countries,  however, 
and  in  what  are  known  as  bad  years,  the  grapes  do  not  arrive 
at  complete  maturity,  and  therefore  great  care  is  taken  to  gather 
them  only  in  dry  weather,  and  after  the  dew  has  disappeared. 
(See  Fermentation — Temperature.)  If  they  are  picked  during  the 
heat  of  the  day,  fermentation  will  commence  sooner  than  if  picked 
in  the  cool  of  the  morning;  amd  for  this  reason,  in  making  white 
wine  from  colored  grapes,  care  should  be  taken  to  pick  and  press 
them  when  cool,  if  it  is  desired  that  the  wine  should  be  free  from 
color;  for  if  the  slightest  fermentation  sets  in  before  pressing,  as 
it  is  apt  to  do  if  the  grapes  are  warm,  some  of  the  coloring  matter 
is  pretty  sure  to  be  extracted  from  the  skins  and  will  discolor  the 
wine. 

'  Successive  Gathering. —  It  is  sometimes  recommended  that 
the  grapes  should  be  gathered  as  they  ripen,  by  going  over  a  vine- 
yard two  or  three  times,  and  picking  off  not  only  the  bunches  that 
are  ripe,  leaving  the  green  ones,  but  even  picking  off  separately 
three  or  four  grapes  from  each  bunch  where  itisnot  evenly  ripened, 
arid  this  is  the  practice  that  is  followed  to-day  in  making  the 
great  white  wines  of  France  and  Germany;  but  it  certainly  will 
not  be  adopted  in  this  State  while  labor  is  as  dear,  and  wine 
is  as  cheap  as  it  is  at  present.  Instead,  that  practice  will  be  fol- 
lowed which  is  recommended  by  those  writers  who  advise  that 
the  grapes  of  each  variety  be  left  on  the  vines  till  they  are  all 
fairly  ripe,  and  that  they  be  gathered  clean  at  one  picking.  Where, 
however,  different  varieties  are  planted  in  the  same  vineyard, 
which  ripen  at  different  periods,  those  only  should  be  picked  at 
the  same  time  which  ripen  together.  Gather  the  early  ones  first, 
and  the  later  ones  successively  as  they  ripen,  but  pick  clean.  The 
same  rule  also  applies  to  grapes  of  the  same  variety,  but  grown  on 
different  soils  and  in  different  situations,  as  it  is  well  known  that 
the  same  variety  of  vine  will  ripen  its  grapes  on  high  land  and 
poor  soil,  earlier  than  on  low  land  and  rich  soil. 


GATHERING  THE  GRAPES.  3 

Sorting  the  Grapes.— It  will  frequently  happen,  however, 
that  there  are  some  bunches  of  green  grapes,  and  they  should 
always  be  thrown  aside,  if  picked  with  the  others.  Sometimes, 
also,  there  is  what  is  called  a  second  crop,  which  ripens  so  much 
later  than  the  main  one  that  two  gatherings  are  necessary.  In 
that  case  it  would  be  injurious  to  the  grapes  of  the  earlier  crop  to 
leave  them  on  the  vine  till  the  complete  maturity  of  those  of  the  sec- 
ond. Careful  wine  makers,  therefore,  will  find  it  to  their  advantage, 
either  to  leave  the  green  grapes  upon  the  vines  for  a  second  pick- 
ing, or,  if  all  are  picked  together,  to  throw  the  green  ones  into 
a  separate  receptacle,  or  to  sort  them  out  from  the  ripe  ones  be- 
fore crushing.  Those  who  wish  to  take  extra  care  will  even  have 
the  unripe,  rotten,  and  dried  berries  clipped  from  the  bunches 
with  scissors.  These  extra  precautions  are  those  which  are  ob- 
served in  making  the  great  wines  of  Europe;  but  they  are  not 
suggested  here  in  the  expectation  that  they  will  be  generally  fol- 
lowed by  the  wine  makers  of  California,  but  rather  for  the  pur- 
pose of  indicating  the  best  practices  to  those  who  may  find  out 
that  on  account  of  the  varieties  they  cultivate,  and  of  the  situa- 
tion and  soil  of  their  vineyards,  they  too  can  produce  such  wines 
by  using  the  same  care. 

Requisite  Degree  of  Maturity. — It  is  insisted  by  all  intelli- 
gent writers  on  the  subject,  that,  with  possible  exceptions,  which 
will  be  mentioned,  the  grapes  should  not  be  gathered  till  they 
have  arrived  at  a  state  of  complete  maturity.  Without  this,  wines 
from  the  finest  varieties  of  grapes  would  not  possess  that  beauty 
of  color,  that  delicious  flavor,  that  fragrant  bouquet,  and  that 
alcoholic  strength  which  they  possess  in  so  eminent  a  degree. 
And  if  it  is  so  necessary  that  the  grapes  of  fine  varieties  should 
be  thoroughly  ripe,  it  is  quite  as  important  that  those  of  the 
poorer  varieties  should  be  equally  so.  For  these  latter  are  gen- 
erally wanting  in  sugar,  and  consequently  their  wines  are  feeble 
in  strength,  and  as  the  sugar  increases  directly  with  the  Degree 
of  maturity  of  the  grape,  so  the  quantity  of  alcohol  in  their  wines 
increases  accordingly,  and  thus  by  ripeness  they  make  up  for 
their  natural  defects. 


4  GATHERING   THE  GRAPES. 

Signs  of  Ripeness.— Complete  maturity  of  the  grape  is  indi- 
cated by  the  concurrence  of  the  following  signs: 

1 .  The  stem  of  the  bunch  changes  from  green  to  brown. 

2.  The  bunch  becomes  pendant. 

3.  The  berry  has  lost  its  firmness;  the  skin  has  become  thin 
and  translucent. 

4.  The  berries  are  easily  separated  from  the  stem. 

5.  The  juice  of  the  grape  has  acquired  an  agreeable  flavor; 
has  become  sweet,  thick,  and  glutinous. 

6.  The  seeds  have  become  void  of  glutinous  substances. 
These  are  the  signs  given  by  several  French  authors,  and  are 

here  taken  from  Prof.  Du  Breuil,  who  says,  nevertheless,  that, 
under  some  circumstances  the  grapes  should  be  gathered  before 
arriving  at  the  state  of  maturity  indicated  by  these  signs,  and 
under  other  conditions  should  be  gathered  even  later.  He  says: 

Gathering  before  Complete  Maturity. — 1 .  In  certain  locali- 
ties north  of  the  viticultural  region  the  grape  hardly  ever 
arrives  at  the  degree  of  maturity  just  indicated.  Yet  the  crop 
must  be  gathered,  or  otherwise  it  would  rot  on  the  vines.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  leave 
the  grapes  on  the  vine  as  long  as  they  derive  any  benefit  from  it. 

2.  Grapes  intended  to  make  sparkling  wine  should  also  be 
gathered  before  the  moment  of  absolute  maturity. 

3.  In  the  southern  part  of  France,  white  grapes  intended  for 
the  making  of  dry  wines,  ought  to  be  picked  before  reaching  the 
last  degree   of   maturity.     Otherwise,  in  that   hot   climate,  the 
quantity  of  sugar  ia  the  grape  would  increase  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  a  dry  wine.     This  is  the 
practice  in  making  the  dry  white  wines  of  Lunel,  of  Coudrieux, 
of  the  Hermitage,  and  of  Saint  Peray. 

4.  For  all  the  ordinary  red  wines  of  the  region  inhabited  by 
the  olive,  if  the  gathering  of  the  grapes  is  delayed  till  the  last 
degree  of  ripeness,  the  must  will  contain  more  sugar  than  can 
be  transformed  into  alcohol  by  fermentation.     The  result  will 
be  that  these  wines  will  undergo  a  sort  of  continuous  fermenta- 
tion, which  will  make  its  appearance  whenever  they  are  moved, 
and  which  will  soon  change  into  acetic  fermentation.     The  only 
way  to  cure  this  tendency  and  to  render  the  wines  capable  of 
shipment,  is  to  strongly  fortify  them  by  the  addition  of  spirits. 


GATHERING  THE  GRAPES.  5 

To  prevent  this  difficulty  in  the  first  place,  the  grapes  should  be 
gathered  before  complete  maturity. 

Some  very  respectable  authors,  whose  experience  has  been  con- 
fined to  the  colder  wine  making  regions,  tell  us  that  in  all  cases 
the  grapes  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vine  as  long  as 
they  gain  in  sugar,  and  that  in  order  to  correct  the  excess  that 
they  would  thus  in  many  cases  acquire,  they  recommend  that  the 
must  be  reduced  by  water.  (See  Watering  Musts. ) 

Gathering:  after  Complete  Maturity. — To  make  sweet  wines, 
the  grapes  should  remain  on  the  vine  until  they  have  developed 
the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  sugar.  For  this  purpose  the 
grapes  are  not  only  allowed  to  shrivel  before  gathering,  but  also 
artificial  means  are  resorted  to,  such  as  twisting  the  stem,  or  dry- 
ing them  on  straw  after  picking,  and  even  applying  heat  to  them 
in  various  ways.  (See  Sweet  Wines.) 

Ripeness  according  to  Required  Strength.— If  the  wine 
maker  will  first  determine  how  strong  in  alcohol  he  wishes  his 
wines  to  be,  he  may  anticipate  the  result  approximately  by  testing 
from  time  to  time  the  amount  of  sugar  contained  in  the  grapes, 
and  by  gathering  them  at  the  period  when  the  sugar  in  the  juice 
shows  that,  fermented,  it  will  produce  the  desired  percentage  of 
spirit.  This  testing  is  easily  performed  by  the  use  of  the  must- 
scale  or  the  saccharometer;  and  for  information  on  this  subject, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter  on  musts. 


MUST. 


CHAPTER  II. 

MUST. 

Must  is  the  name  applied  to  the  juice  of  the  grape  before  fer- 
mentation . 

Composition. — A  good,  average  must,  contains  in  100  parts 
by  weight,  the  following  ingredients,  and  in  the  proportions  as 
indicated,  by  weight,  according  to  Dr.  Guyot;  but  the  amount  of 
sugar  would  be  considered  too  small  in  California: 

Pure  water,  78 

Grape  sugar  (glucose)  -      20 

Free  acids  (tartaric,  tannic,  etc.),  00.25 

Salts,  or  organic  acids  (bitartrate),  -                     1.50 

Mineral  salts,  0.20 

Nitrogenous,  fermentive  matter,  ~\ 

Essential  oils,  .05 
Mucilaginous  and  starchy  substances,  ) 

These  constituents  vary,  however,  according  to  variety  of  grape, 
degree  of  maturity,  soil,  climate,  etc.;  and  some  of  them  may  rise 
in  amount  to  double  the  average  quantity  given,  or  may  even, 
under  some  circumstances,  descend  to  the  one-fourth  of  it.  Al- 
though all  these  ingredients  doubtless  have  important  effects 
upon  the  quality  of  the  wine  produced  by  fermentation,  the  acid 
giving  zest  and  freshness  of  taste,  and  the  other  minor  ingredi- 
ents, smoothness  or  harshness,  as  the  case  may  be,  yet  the  prin- 
cipal one  that  we  have  to  deal  with  is  the  sugar,  and  it  is  the 
only  one  that  the  practical  wine  maker  will  give  much  attention 
to,  although  in  those  countries  where  the  grape  in  some  seasons 
does  not  ripen,  the  amount  of  acid  is  an  important  element  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  testing  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
must.  (See  Composition  of  Wines,  for  further  details.) 

Grape  Sugar,  or  glucose,  as  it  is  known  in  chemical  language, 
as  already  remarked,  is  the  most  important  element  entering  into 


MUST.  7 

the  composition  of  must,  and  upon  its  quantity  depends  directly 
the  amount  of  alcohol  contained  in  the  wine.  The  intelligent 
wine  maker,  then,  who  wishes  to  know  what  will  be  the  alcoholic 
strength  of  the  wine  produced  by  the  must  which  he  is  about  to 
subject  to  the  action  of  fermentation,  will  test  the  must  to  ascer- 
tain what  percentage  of  sugar  it  contains.  This  is  very  easily 
done  by  the  use  of  an  instrument  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

Must  Scale. — A  certain  quantity  of  sugar  being  heavier  than 
the  same  volume  of  water — pure  cane  sugar  weighing  about  one 
and  six-tenths  to  one  of  water — it  follows  that  the  more  sugar 
there  is  added  to  a  given  quantity  of  water  the  heavier  it  becomes, 
and  the  more  it  will  bear  up  anything  floating  on  it;  or,  as  it  is 
generally  stated,  the  less  of  the  liquid  will  be  displaced  by  the 
floating  body.  On  this  principle,  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids, 
or  their  weight  as  compared  with  water,  is  ascertained.  The  in- 
strument employed  is  known  by  the  general  name  of  areometer, 
but  it  is  now  more  commonly  called  a  hydrometer,  and  various 
specific  names  are  given  to  it  according  to  the  uses  for  which  it 
is  intended.  When  constructed  for  testing  the  strength  of  sugar 
syrups  it  is  called  a  syrup-scale,  saccharometer,  ptee-sirop,  etc., 
and  those  especially  for  testing  musts  are  called  must-scales, 
pese-moiit,  etc.  These  latter  are  constructed  on  the  theory  that  the 
liquid  contains  only  cane  sugar  and  water — the  difference  in  specific 
gravity  between  cane  sugar  and  grape  sugar  being  disregarded — 
and  that  its  density  depends  on  the  quantity  of  sugar;  and  al- 
though the  density  of  must  is  somewhat  affected  by  other  solid 
matters  than  (Sugar  contained  in  it,  yet  these  instruments,  whether 
syrup-scales  or  must-scales  proper,  will  give  results  sufficiently 
accurate  for  the  purposes  of  the  wine  maker,  a  small  allowance 
being  made  for  the  other  solids,  as  hereafter  mentioned.  There 
are  three  instruments  which  are  the  most  generally  used  in  this 
country :  Oechsle's  must-scale,  Balling's  saccharometer  or  syrup- 
scale,  and  Baume's  syrup-scale,  or  pese-sirop.  The  degrees  of 
Oechsle's  instrument  indicate  specific  gravity  in  the  manner  men- 
tioned under  Table  I;  Balling's  indicates  percentages  of  sugar  di- 
rectly; and  Baume's  degrees  are  arbitrary.  (See  Tables  II  and 


8  MUST. 

III. )  There  are  other  instruments  used  in  France — the  gleuco- 
cenometer,  reading  upwards  for  spirit  and  down  for  sugar  on  the 
same  stem,  corresponding  in  degrees  to  Baume's — and  the  gleu- 
cometer,  which  indicates  at  once  the  percentage  of  alcohol  which 
the  wine  will  contain  after  fermentation.  Baume's  and  Balling's 
instruments  are  better  suited  for  use  in  California,  where  the 
musts  often  show  a  specific  gravity  higher  than  is  indicated  by 
Oechsle's  scale,  which  frequently  is  graduated  only  up  to  80  deg., 
or  19.75  per  cent,  of  sugar.  They  are  all  made  on  the  same 
general  plan,  and  are  usually  constructed  of  glass.  The  instru- 
Fig.  I.  ment  consists  of  a  tube  about  the  size  of  a  pipe-stem, 
terminating  below  in  a  bulb  or  expansion,  weighted 
at  the  bottom  so  that  it  will  stand  upright  and  float 
when  placed  in  a  liquid.  The  scale  is  marked  on  the 
stem,  commencing  at  the  top  and  numbering  down- 
ward. The  first  mark  is  zero,  and  shows  how  far  the 
hydrometer  sinks  in  pure  water.  (Fig.  1.)  As  hy- 
drometers are  not  always  accurate,  it  is  safer  before 
using  one  to  have  it  tested  by  a  chemist  or  a  gauger,  as 
but  few  others  have  the  necessary  skill  or  the  instru- 
ments requisite  for  that  purpose.  If,  however,  an  in- 
strument which  has  been  tested  is  accessible,  another 
one  can  be  easily  compared  with  that  by  ascertaining 
if  both  sink  to  the  same  point  in  the  same  sugar  solu- 
tions. 

TESTING    FOR    SUGAR. 

Any  person,  provided  with  one  of  the  ^hydrometers 
mentioned,  can  easily  ascertain  the  percentage  of 
Hydrometer.  SUgar  contained  in  any  must  with  tolerable  accuracy, 
providing  the  grapes  from  which  it  is  pressed  are  ripe;  for  if 
they  are  green,  and  contain  an  undue  amount  of  acid,  the  density 
will  be  materially  affected  by  that.  There  is  no  occasion,  how- 
ever, for  making  wine  from  green  grapes  in  this  State. 


MUST. 


9 


Fig.  2. 


In  addition  to  the  hydrometer,  it  is  necessary  to 
be  provided  with  a  thermometer  with  which  to 
ascertain  the  temperature  of  the  must.  Besides 
the  hydrometer  and  the  thermometer,  the  only 
other  article  necessary  is  a  glass  tube  closed  at  the 
bottom  and  provided  with  a  foot,  so  that  it  will 
stand  upright,  called  the  hydrometer- jar.  (Fig.  2.) 
This  jar  should  have  a  diameter  a  little  greater 
than  that  of  the  bulb  of  the  hydrometer,  and  must 
be  of  such  a  height  that  the  latter  instrument  will 
stand  upright  and  float  freely  in  it,  when  filled 
with  a  liquid.  In  the  absence  of  the  hydrometer- 
jar,  an  empty  fruit  jar,  or  a  tall  tin  cup  or  can  will 
Hydrometer-jar,  answer  its  purpose.  In  performing  the  operation, 
see  that  all  the  articles  used  are  perfectly  clean,  more  particularly 
the  hydrometer,  for  anything  that  would  slightly  affect  its  weight 
would  render  the  result  of  the  test  useless.  Having  taken  this 
precaution,  press  the  juice  from  a  small  quantity  of  grapes  and 
strain  it  through  a  cloth,  and  pour  sufficient  into  the  hydrometer- 
jar,  that  when  the  hydrometer  is  plunged  into  it,  it  will  just 
bring  the  level  of  the  liquid  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  vessel,  or  to 
such  a  height  that  the  figure  on  the  stem  can  easily  be  read.  Now 
place  the  thermometer  in  the  must  and  ascertain  its  temperature, 
for  the  instruments  are  intended  to  be  used  at  a  certain  degree 
of  he*at,  although  three  or  four  degrees  variation  either  way  will 
not  materially  affect  the  result.  Baume's  instrument,  as  origin- 
ally constructed,  was  graduated  for  a  temperature  of  10°  Eeamur, 
which  corresponds  with  54i°  F.;  but  as  constructed  now-a-days, 
is  generally  graduated  for  a  temperature  of  58°  or  60°  F.;  and 
Balling's  and  Oechsle's  for  a  temperature  of  63 fj  F.  Some  of 
Balling's  instruments  sold  in  the  market  are  graduated  for  62°  F. 
If  it  is  found  that  the  temperature  is  above  or  below  the  degree 
indicated,  it  may  be  lowered  by  cooling,  or  raised  by  warming, 
till  about  the  right  temperature  is  reached.  Then  the  hydrometer, 
being  clean,  should  be  taken  by  the  stem  at  the  top  and  gradu- 
ally lowered  into  the  must  until  it  floats-.  Press  it  down  slightly 
with  the  finger  and  let  it  come  to  equilibrium,  being  careful  that 


10  MUST. 

there  is  not  a  drop  of  'water  on  the  stem  above  the  surface  of  the 
liquid,  nor  a  bubble  of  air  below.  On  looking  at  the  stem  where 
it  meets  the  surface,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  liquid  there  curves 
upwards  around  the  instrument,  and  that  the  top  of  this  curve 
marks  one  degree  higher  than  the  general  surface.  If  the  reading 
is  taken  from  the  point  marked  by  the  top  of  the  curve  (the 
figures  reading  downwards),  add  one  degree,  or  in  other  words, 
ascertain  the  mark  on  the  stem  corresponding  to  the  general  sur- 
face of  the  liquid.  If  Balling's  scale  is  used,  the  number  at  this 
mark  shows  the  percentage  of  sugar  which  the  must  contains;  if 
Baume's  is  used,  consult  Table  II  or  III,  and  opposite  this  num- 
ber will  be  found  the  corresponding  per  cent,  of  sugar.  If 
Oechsle's  scale  is  used,  find  from  Table  I  or  II  the  specific  gravity 
and  the  corresponding  sugar  per  cent.  Under  Table  I  instruc- 
tions will  be  found  for  reading  Oechsle's  scale.  If  Baume's 
instrument  is  used,  and  a  table  is  not  at  hand,  multiply  the 
observed  figure  by  1.8,  and  the  product  will  be  nearly  the  per  cent, 
of  sugar. 

Correction  for  Temperature.— It  is  known  that  a  sugar 
solution  or  a  must  expands  as  the  temperature  increases,  and 
contracts  as  it  diminishes;  and  nice  experiments  have  been  per- 
formed to  show  the  amount  of  dilatation  and  contraction  at  dif- 
ferent temperatures,  and  the  consequent  variation  in  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquid,  but  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the 
results  of  the  researches  of  different  authors,  and  it  would  seem 
that  further  experiments  are  necessary;  but  a  rule  may  be  deduced 
which  may  be  used  instead  of  changing  the  temperature  of  the 
must  to  make  it  correspond  with  that  for  which  the  instrument 
is  graduated,  and  although  not  strictly  correct,  is  sufficient  for 
our  purpose;  and  that  is  to  add  one-half  per  cent,  to  the  sugar 
per  cent,  indicated  by  the  hydrometer  for  every  15°  F.  above 
the  standard  temperature,  and  subtract  J  per  cent,  for  every  15° 
below.  For  instance,  if  Baume's  instrument  shows  22£  per  cent, 
of  sugar  at  75°  F.,  the  actual  strength  is  23  per  cent.,  and  it 
would  mark  that  at  60°.  If  the  same  instrument  shows  23 £  per 
cent,  at  45°  F.,  the  real  strength  is  23  per  cent.  In  using  Ball- 


MUST.  .  11 

ing's  scale  graduated  at  63  i°  F.,  the  15°  in  our  example  would 
make  78J°  for  the  first  supposed  case,  and  48£°  for  the  second. 

In  most  cases  the  variation  in  temperature  will  be  so  little  that 
it  may  be  disregarded;  but  if  the  test  is  made  soon  after  the 
grapes  have  been  exposed  to  a  hot  sun,  the  must  may  show  a 
temperature  of  90°  or  95° F.,  and  it  would  indicate  one  per  cent, 
less  than  its  real  sugar  strength.  But  the  temperature  would  go 
below  the  freezing  point  of  water  before  the  must  would  mark 
one  per  cent,  too  much. 

As  the  must  contains  a  small  quantity  of  acids  and  extractive 
matter  which  affect  its  density,  some  authors  recommend  that 
from  one-tenth  to  one-fifteenth  of  the  figures  indicating  the  density 
by  Baume  should  be  deducted,  calling  the  remainder  sugar,  and 
this  is  about  equivalent  to  deducting  one  for  every  twelve  per 
cent,  of  sugar.  But  if  the  grapes  are  ripe  and  the  must  is  strained, 
for  all  practical  purposes  all  of  the  solid  matter  may  be  called 
sugar,  considering  that  we  make  a  pretty  liberal  allowance  of 
sugar  for  one  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  Fresh  must  should  always 
be  taken  for.  the  purpose  of  testing  for  sugar,  for  as  alcohol  is 
much  lighter  than  water,  if  fermentation  has  commenced,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  sugar  by  means  of  the 
hydrometer. 

Sugar  and  Alcohol. — It  will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on 
fermenation  that,  in  actual  practice,  it  takes  about  two  per  cent, 
of  sugar,  as  indicated  by  the  hydrometer,  to  produce  one  per 
cent,  by  volume  of  alcohol;  therefore,  divide  the  percentage  of 
sugar  contained  in  the  must,  as  shown  by  the  hydrometer,  by 
two,  and  the  quotient  is  approximately  the  per  cent,  of  alcohol 
which  will  be  contained  in  the  wine  after  complete  fermentation. 

Alcohol  in  Wine. — A  good,  saleable  dry  wine  ought  to  contain 
from  eleven  to  twelve  or  thirteen  per  cent,  of  alcohol;  and  to 
produce  such  a  wine  the  must  should  indicate  from  22  to  26  per 
cent,  of  sugar  by  the  hydrometer.  A  wine  which  is  soon  to  be 
consumed  at  home  does  not  require  that  degree  of  strength  neces- 
sary for  shipment  abroad  and  for  keeping,  and  may  contain  only 
ten  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  even  less,  and  be  found  a  very  pala- 
table drink,  and  less  "  heady"  than  that  of  a  higher  degree  of 


12  ,  MUST. 

spirit.  And  a  wine  may  contain  as  much  as  14  per  cent,  of  spirit, 
and  be  very  acceptable  to  the  wine  merchant  for  mixing  with 
weaker  wines. 

A  must  which  does  not  contain  more  than  24  per  cent,  of  sugar 
per  hydrometer,  if  properly  managed,  will  complete  its  fermenta- 
tion, and  if  it  does  not  contain  less  than  22  per  cent.,  will  make 
a  good,  sound,  shipping  wine,  which  will  keep  in  almost  any 
climate.  Mr.  Crabb,  a  well  known  wine  maker  of  Oakville,  in  this 
State,  writes  me  that  such  a  must  will  ferment  dry  in  six  days, 
but  that  if  it  contains  more  than  24  per  cent,  of  sugar,,  fermenta* 
tion  is  likely  to  be  arrested  by  the  amount  of  alcohoi,  when  it 
amounts  to  12  per  cent.  This  gentleman  is  an  intelligent  vim- 
culturist  and  a  practical  man,  and  it  would  be  safe  to  follow  his 
advice.  Mr.  Arpad  Haraszthy,  who  is  noted  in  this  connection, 
in  his  lecture  on  fermentation  before  the  convention  of  wine- 
growers, held  at  San  Francisco  in  September,  1882,  indicated 
22  per  cent,  as  a  proper  degree  of  sugar  in  the  must;  and  it  is 
reported  that  the  wine  makers  of  Los  Angeles  county,  in  fixing 
the  prices  of  grapes  in  1882,  adopted  23  percent,  as  the  standard. 
Undoubtedly  the  fermentation  will  be  finished  sooner,  and  will 
be  less  troublesome,  if  the  must  contains  sugar  within  the  limits 
of  22  and  24  per  cent.,  than  if  allowed  to  go  beyond.  (See 
Maturity.)  If  it  should  go  to  26  per  cent,  and  beyond,  the 
chances  are  that  the  fermentation  will  be  incomplete,  and  that  a 
portion  of  the  sugar  will  remain  in  the  wine,  which  will  cause  it 
to  ferment  when  exposed  to  changes  of  temperature;  it  may 
become  milk  sour,  and  there  will  be  danger  of  rapid  deterioration. 
From  which  it  follows  that,  except  for  making  sweet  wines,  the 
grapes  should  be  gathered  before  they  develop  much  more  than 
24  per  cent,  of  sugar.  Supposing,  however,  that  picking  com- 
mences as  soon  as  the  must  shows  22  per  cent.,  sufficient  force 
should  be  employed  to  finish  before  it  goes  beyond  the  limit  indi- 
cated. For  the  writer  has  seen  grapes  gathered  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season  and  made  into  wine  which  showed  11  per  cent,  of 
alcohol,  when  the  wine  made  from  grapes  of  the  same  vineyard, 
gathered  too  late,  either  on  account  of  lack  of  pickers  or  of  fer- 
menting tanks,  contained  14.5  per  cent.,  and  was  still  sweet. 


.  SUGARING  AND   WATERING  MUST.  13 


CHAPTER  III. 

SUGARING   AND    WATERING    MUST. 

Sugaring. — As  early  as  1776,  Macquer,  in  France,  found  that 
by  adding  sugar  to  the  must  of  green  grapes,  he  could  make 
wine;  and  since  his  time  many  authors,  notably  Chaptal,  Gall, 
and  Petiot,  have  recommended  the  addition  of  sugar  to  the  must 
of  bad  years  when  the  grapes  did  not  ripen;  and  had  the  practice 
been  limited  to  the  addition  of  sufficient  sugar  of  good  quality  to  a 
must  which  was  deficient  in  that  respect,  but  little  harm  would  have 
been  done.  The  next  step,  however,  was  to  take  the  must  of  partly 
ripe  grapes  which  contained  an  undue  quantity  of  acid,  and 
reduce  it  by  the  addition  of  water  till  the  acid  corresponded  in 
quantity  to  that  contained  in  a  must  of  ripe  grapes,  and  then  to 
add  sufficient  sugar  to  bring  it  up  again  to  the  necessary  degree 
of  sweetness.  This  may  be  permissible  in  those  countries  where 
in  some  years  the  grapes  do  not  ripen,  and  in  order  to  make  a 
drinkable  wine,  water  to  reduce  the  acid,  and  sugar  to  give 
sweetness,  must  be  added.  But  this  did  not  satisfy  the  greed  of 
the  artificial  wine  makers;  they  found,  so  they  say,  that  they 
could  press  the  juice  from  the  grapes,  ferment  it  by  itself,  then 
add  to  the  marc  water  and  sugar  enough  to  bring  it  back  to  its 
original  quantity  and  sugar  strength,  draw  off  the  artificial  juice 
slightly  colored  by  the  skins,  and  repeat  the  operation,  and  so 
make  three  and  four  times  the  quantity  of  wine  that  could  other- 
wise be  made,  and  all  good  wine. 

It  was  thought  that  wine  making  in  Europe  would  be  revolu- 
tionized, and  untold  wealth  would  pour  into  the  coffers  of  the 
wine  makers.  It  was  found,  however,  that  cane  sugar  was  too 
expensive,  but  artificial  glucose  could  be  made  from  grain  and 
potatoes  at  a  very  small  cost,  and  by  reason  of  its  cheapness  its 
use  was  forthwith  recommended;  and  to  such  an  extent  was  the 
matter  carried,  that  one  would  suppose  that  in  order  to  make 
good  wine,  it  was  only  necessary  to  soak  a  few  grape  skins  in  a 
quantity  of  sweetened  water  and  let  it  ferment ! 


14  SUGARING  AND   WATERING  MUST. 

The  practice,  however,  to  the  extent  mentioned,  did  not  com- 
mend itself  to  sensible  men,  and  wine  making  did  not  become 
revolutionized.  Yet  it  was  to  some  extent  adopted,  and  the  effect 
upon  the  wines  of  Burgundy  is  shown  by  Dubrunfaut  in  his 
work  on  Sucrage  de  Mouts.  He  says  that  starch-sugar  (glucose) 
factories  were  established  in  Burgundy,  and  from  1825  to  1845, 
this  material  was  used  to  strengthen  the  musts.  But  complaints 
arose  in  France  and  elsewhere  against  Burgundy  wines;  they 
had  a  new  flavor,  and  unexpected  changes  in  many  respects  had 
come  over  them.  A  congress  of  wine  makers  was  held  at  Dijon 
in  1845,  at  which  the  abandonment  of  the  use  of  glucose  was 
decreed  upon  the  report  of  a  committee  of  merchants  and  pro- 
prietors of  Beaune,  which  was  in  effect  as  follows:  that  the  long 
extolled  and  generally  practiced  system  of  sugaring,  and  against 
which  a  reaction  set  in  some  years  ago,  ought  to  be  completely 
abandoned,  as  being  fatal  (funeste)  to  Burgundy.  He  con- 
siders, however,  as  do  some  others  who  condemn  the  use  of  glu- 
cose, that  the  use  of  refined  cane  sugar  is  unobjectionable  if  used 
in  small  quantities  and  merely  to  fortify  the  must  when  it  needs 
it.  There  are  many  authors,  however,  who  speak  highly  of  the 
wines  produced  by  the  addition  of  sugar  and  water  to  the  skins 
after  the  juice  has  been  drawn  off,  but  it  does  not  seem  reason- 
able that  a  good  wine  can  be  made  in  that  manner.  If  a  good 
must  contained  only  water,  sugar,  and  acids,  then  there  would 
be  reason  for  believing  that  the  wine  so  made  would  be  good. 
But  it  is  well  known  that  many  other  ingredients  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  which,  in  some  unknown 
manner,  have  a  very  important  influence  upon  the  wine  made  from 
it.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  an  artificial  must,  which 
is  carrying  the  process  but  little  farther  than  it  is  carried  by  some 
of  the  writers  on  the  subject;  but  Mr.  Boireau  says  that  what  is 
produced  resembles  cider  rather  than  wine.  He  gives  the  fol- 
lowing composition  as  approaching  very  nearly  a  must  for  com- 
mon white  wine: 

Refined  Sugar,  25  kilog. 

Tincture  of  tannin,     -        -        -  20  gr. 


SUGARING  AND   WATERING  MUST.  15 

Crystals  of  tartaric  acid,  500  gr. 
Gum  arable,       -  1  kilog. 

Vine  leaves  and  fresh  twigs  chopped,  -     5  kilog. 
Distilled  or  filtered  water,  1  hectol. 

The  author  last  quoted  is  a  practical  man,  and  his  opinion  is 
valuable.  He  says,  when  the  fermentation  of  this  artificial  must 
is  most  active,  it  has  analogies  with  ordinary  white  wine,  but  it 
costs  much  more  than  the  natural  wine;  and  when  its  fermenta- 
tion is  complete,  it  -has  not  a  bad  taste,  and  there  is  nothing 
hurtful  in  its  composition,  but  that  it  has  not  the  taste  of  white 
wine;  and  the  only  time  when  it  has  any  analogy  to  white  wine 
is  during  the  tumultuous  fermentation  as  already  mentioned. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  vary  the  formula,  but  without 
important  results.  Tolerably  agreeable  drinks  are  obtained,  but 
they  are  not  wine.  M.  Boussingault  gives  his  experience  in  sugar- 
ing and  watering  must;* and  the  wine  produced  lacked  acid,  color, 
astringency,  and  was  very  inferior  to  the  wine  first  made  from 
the  pure  juice;  it  lacked  the  fixed  substances  and  aromatic  princi- 
ples. He  says  that  some  would  prefer  it  to  cider,  but  that  it  only 
differed  from  piquette  in  having  a  greater  degree  of  alcohol. 

To  give  even  a  summary  of  what  has  been  written  upon  this 
subject  would  occupy  a  volume,  but  the  results  arrived  at  by 
the  more  intelligent  modern  writers  and  experimenters  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows: 

1 .  That  good  wine  can  be  made  only  from  the  pure  juice  of 
the  grape. 

2.  That  in  case  the  grapes  do  not  ripen  sufficiently  to  make  a 
drinkable  wine,  water  may  be  added  to  reduce  the  acid,  and  then 
sugar  enough  to  bring  it  up  to  the  average  sugar  strength;  but  in 
no  case  should  any  but  the  refined  cane  sugar  be  used;  artificial 
glucose,  never. 

Nothing  gained  by  adding  Sugar.— Aside  from  the  question  of 
quality,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  a  few  remarks  for  the  benefit 
of  intended  wine  makers  who  may  have  been  led  to  believe,  by 
mistaken  authors,  that  the  profits  of  wine  making  maybe  increased 


16  SUGARING  AND  WATERING  MUST. 

by  adding  sugar  and  water,  and  thereby  augmenting  the  quantity. 
Assuming  that  it  is  permissible  to  use  only  refined  sugar,  it  can 
easily  be  shown  that  it  is  as  cheap,  if  not  cheaper,  to  make  wine 
from  grapes  than  from  sugar,  as  long  as  grapes  can  be  bought 
for  $30  per  ton. 

A  gallon  of  dry  wine  of  average  specific  gravity,  containing  10 
per  cent,  by  weight,  or  12.4  by  volume,  of  alcohol,  weighs  about 
8i  pounds,  and  contains  about  .825  of  a  pound  of  pure  alcohol. 
To  produce  a  pound  of  alcohol  requires  about  2t  Ibs.  of  pure 
grape  sugar,  or  2.138  Ibs.  of  pure  cane  sugar,  in  practice,  accord- 
ing to  the  chapter  on  fermentation;  so  that  to  produce  the  .825 
Ibs.  of  alcohol  in  one  gallon  of  wine,  requires  about  1.80  Ibs.  of 
pure  cane  sugar.  But  refined  crystalized  sugar  is  not  pure  sugar 
(anhydrous),  as  it  contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  water;  so,  to 
make  our  1.8  of  pure  sugar,  requires  2  Ibs.  of  ordinary  refined 
sugar.  At  10  cents  per  pound,  which  would  be  cheap  for  thig 
market,  it  would  cost  20  cents  to  make  the  must  for  a  gallon  of 
wine. 

Supposing  that  a  ton  of  grapes  costs  $30,  and  produces  150 
gallons  of  wine,  each  gallon  would  cost  20  cents.  So  that  there 
is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  adding  sugar  at  10  cents  a  pound, 
even  if  a  ton  of  grapes  costs  $30  a  ton,  for  the  same  facts  would 
apply  to  every  pound  of  sugar  added  to  a  must,  as  well  as  in  the 
case  supposed,  where  all  the  sugar  was  supplied. 

Cost  of  Glucose  Wine. — Supposing  that  artificial  glucose  con- 
tains 80  per  cent,  of  pure  (anhydrous)  sugar,  it  would  require  2i 
Ibs.  to  make  our  gallon  of  wine;  and  if  it  could  be  laid  down 
here  at  5  cents  a  pound,  the  gallon  of  wine  would  cost  nearly 
12  cents,  and  this  would  be  equivalent  to  paying  $18  a  ton  for 
grapes. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  that  every  pound  of  glucose 
and  water  added  to  a  must  will  diminish  the  price  of  every  gallon 
of  wine  produced,  it  is  probable  that  but  little,  if  anything,  could 
be  gained  even  by  the  use  of  this  article;  for  the  product  will  not 
bring  the  price  of  an  honest  wine,  and  in  the  long  run  will 
destroy  the  reputation  of  our  wines,  and  reflect  injury  upon 
every  wine  maker  in  the  State. 


SUGARING  AND   WATERING  MUST.  17 

Experiment  with  Glucose.— Mr.  Crabb,  of  Oakville,  gave  his 
experience  with  glucose  in  a  paper  read  before  the  St.  Helena 
Vinicultural  Club,  in  July,  1882,  as  follows:  I  took  three  pack- 
ages of  equal  size,  one  containing  pure  grape  juice,  the  two 
others  containing  each  equal  parts  of  the  same  juice  and  glu- 
cose water,  all  showing  23  per  cent,  sugar  by  Balling's  saccha- 
rometer.  The  pure  juice  was  dry  in  15  days  (the  room  being- 
cold).  One  package  of  the  mixture  was  dry  in  30  days;  the 
other  continued  in  fermentation  60  days,  both  emitting  a  rank 
offensive  odor  during  the  process,  arising  from  the  amount  of 
chalk  and  sulphuric  acid  required  in  its  (glucose)  manufacture. 
Racking  at  this  time  appeared  to  remove  the  greater  part  of  the 
offensive  odor,  and  in  30  days  the  wine  was  clear  and  bright 
enough  to  pass  for  a  two-years'-old  wine.  I  now  thought  it  con- 
tained a  very  superior  fining  principle,  and  if  a  small  enough 
quantity  would  answer  the  purpose,  it  might  be  a  valuable  acqui- 
sition. But  this  was  its  most  favorable  period;  it  had  reached  its 
zenith,  and  while  the  pure  juice  was  now  beginning  to  develop  its 
vinous  properties,  the  mixture  commenced  to  deteriorate,  becom- 
ing flat  and  insipid,  as  any  grape  juice  would  by  being  one-half 
water,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  and  chalk  (sulphate  of  lime)  devel- 
oping a  disagreeable  after-taste.  Notwithstanding  that  I  have 
racked  it  again  and  fined  it  to  a  perfect  condition,  there  is  not 
the  least  improvement,  and  I  believe  as  it  becomes  more  dry  with 
age,  that  the  bitter,  nauseous  after-taste  will  become  more  and 
more  pronounced,  so  that  one  glass  of  it  will  leave  such  a  lasting 
impression  on  the  palate  as  to  never  want  any  more;  whereas, 
the  package  of  pure  juice  is  now  vinous,  sprightly,  refreshing 
and  inviting. 

The  use  of  Glucose  condemned.— On  the  16th  day  of  July, 
1881,  the  St.  Helena  Vinicultural  Association  adopted  resolutions 
condemning  in  the  strongest  terms  the  use  of  glucose  in  the 
making  of  wine  and  brandy,  and  promising  to  expose  all  parties 
importing  or  receiving  the  substance  by  publishing  their  names, 
and  pledging  the  Society  to  use  all  honorable  means  to  prevent 
the  adulteration  of  the  product  of  our  vineyards.  The  resolu- 


18  SUGARING  AND   WATERING  MUST. 

tions  passed  unanimously,  and  were  published  in  the  different 
newspapers.  One  man  in  the  district,  notwithstanding  the  warn- 
ing, did  cause  to  be  shipped  to  him  a  quantity  of  glucose,  and 
the  President  and  Secretary  of  the  Society  published  in  several 
different  newspapers,  in  December,  1881,  over  their  own  signa- 
tures, and  in  the  name  of  the  Association,,  a  notice  reciting  the 
resolutions,  and  stating  that  a  person  (giving  his  name)  "im- 
ported eighty  barrels  of  grape  sugar,  made  from  corn,  commonly 
called  glucose,  and  used  the  same,  or  the  greater  part  of  it,  in 
the  manufacture  of  wine  during  the  last  vintage." 

We  believe  that  this  was  an  exceptional  case,  and  that  its  use 
in  this  State  has  been  exceedingly  rare. 

Watering. — Another  question  which  has  been  a  good  deal  dis- 
cussed is,  whether  it  is  better  to  pick  the  grapes  as  soon  as  they 
develop  sufficient  sugar,  or  leave  them  on  the  vine  till  they  develop 
an  excess,  and  then  reduce  the  must  with  water.  Dr.  Guyot  hav- 
ing laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental  principle  in  wine  making  in 
France,  that  the  grapes  should  be  left  on  the  vine  as  late  as  pos- 
sible, and  until  they  have  reached  the  highest  point  of  maturity, 
except,  perhaps,  in  some  of  the  most  extreme  southern  portions, 
he  is  consistent  in  counseling  the  addition  of  water  to  the  must. 
But  the  only  reason  given  by  him  for  it  is  that  it  is  consonant  with 
his  principle  previously  stated.  Du  Breuil  is  also  of  the  same 
opinion.  Both  are  men  of  high  authority,  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  either  of  them  ever  made  wine  in  a  warm  climate,  where  the 
grapes  would  develop  so  much  sugar  as  to  require  the  addition 
of  water,  if  left  upon  the  vine  as  late  as  possible.  We  have,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  testimony  of  Boireau,  who,  speaking  on  the 
subject,  says  that  it  is  probable  that  the  theoricians  who  are  in 
favor  of  the  practice  have  never  made  wine  of  must  too  rich  in  sugar 
and  of  water.  He  says,  it  is  true  that  the  quantity  is  increased, 
and  fermentation  is  complete,  but  that  the  wine  so  made  is  only 
fit  for  the  still,  will  not  keep  and  readily  turns  sour.  -The  Greeks 
have  followed  this  practice  from  time  immemorial  in  the  Archi- 
pelago, where  he  tasted  their  wine  so  made  in  1865,  and  which 
they  can  keep  with  difficulty  for  one  year,  in  spite  of  the  addition 


SUGARING  AND   WATERING  MUST.  19 

of  a  large  quantity  of  rosin,  which  they  introduce  during  fer- 
mentation. And  yet,  these  wines  are  not  weak,  having  an  average 
of  10£  to  11  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  He  says  that  but  few  grapes 
give  musts  too  rich  in  sugar,  if  they  are  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe; 
for  even  in  viticultural  countries  situated  farthest  south,  as  the 
south  of  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Africa,  the  grape  just 
ripe  gives  a  must  which  does  not  exceed  14°  Baume,  unless  left 
on  the  vine  until  part  of  the  water  of  vegetation  has  evaporated. 
Having  alluded  to  both  sides  of  the  question,  it  would  seem  to 
be  a  fair  inference  from  the  foregoing  that  the  safest  course  would 
be,  in  a  hot  climate,  to  gather  the  grapes  as  soon  as  fairly  ripe. 
This  may  easily  be  done,  where  each  grape  grower  makes  his  own 
wine,  and  has  immediate  supervision  of  the  picking,  and  has 
sufficient  men  to  finish  it  with  promptness.  But  in  the  case  of 
large  manufacturers  who  buy  their  grapes  and  cannot  supervise 
or  order  the  gathering  in  the  numerous  vineyards  whose  crops 
they  purchase,  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary,  when  the  grapes 
come  in  over-ripe,  and  it  is  not  desirable  to  make  sweet  wine,  to 
add  a  small  quantity  of  water  to  insure  prompt  and  complete 
fermentation.  When  the  necessity  arises,  great  caution  should 
be  used,  and  the  necessity  should  be  avoided  when  possible. 


20  STEMMING  AND  CRUSHING. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

STEMMING    AND    CRUSHING. 

Diversity  of  Opinion  on  Stemming.— There  is  no  subject 
connected  with  wine-making  upon  which  there  is  a  greater  differ- 
ence of  opinion  than  that  of  stemming.  And  it  would  seem  that 
the  diversity  of  practice  is  not  always  caused  by  the  different 
conditions  and  exigencies  of  location,  variety  of  grapes,  etc.  ; 
but  among  the  different  wine-makers  in  the  same  locality,  some 
remove  the  stems,  and  others  do  not;  from  which  Dr.  Guyot 
infers  that'  the  practice  cannot  be  classed  among  the  essential 
principles  governing  vinincation,  but  is  a  mere  matter  of  detail, 
and  that  stemming  may  be  practiced  or  omitted  without  materi- 
ally affecting  the  wine.  But  Machard,  a  writer  of  the  Jura,  lays 
it  down  imperiously  as  one  of  the  very  essentials  of  good  wine- 
making  that  the  grapes  should  be  fermented  with  the  stems,  and 
calls  stemming  a  pernicious  practice. 

Effect  of  Stemming. —  All  agree,  however,  that  the  stems, 
during  fermentation,  if  not  removed,  yield  tannin  to  the  wine, 
and  thereby  give  it  astringency.  It  is  also  said  to  increase 
fermentation,  by  furnishing  to  the  must  additional  germs  of 
fermentation  adhering  to  the  stems,  and  perhaps  acting  also  in  a 
mechanical  way,  by  presenting  many  salient  points,  and  exposing 
a  greater  surface  to  the  action  of  the  ferment.*  They  also  add  a 
certain  amount  of  acid  to  the  wine,  if  green.  It  is  evident  that 
they  increase  the  labor  of  pressing,  by  adding  to  the  mass 
of  marc. 

Proper  Practice. —  If,  therefore,  by  reason  of  the  variety  of 
grapes  cultivated,  or  the  soil,  or  situation,  your  wine  is  too  soft, 
lacks  life  and  astringency,  ferment  with  all  or  a  portion  of  the 
stems  ;  but  if  your  wine  is  rough,  too  astringent,  it  will  be  found 
beneficial  to  stem  the  grapes.  If  your  grapes  lack  the  ferrnentive 
principle,  and  fermentation  is  slow  and  incomplete,  leave  the 

*Paateur,iu  his  Studies  on  Beer,  says  that  the  reason  has  not  yet  been  discovered,  but 
that  he  has  no  doubt  that  it  may  be  attri  >uted,  principally,  to  the  fact  that  the  interstices 
between  thegrapes,  ami  the  spaces  which  the  bunch  leaves  throughout,  considerably  in- 
crease th'i  volume  of  air  placed  at  the  service  of  the  germ  \  of  ferment. 


STEMMING  AND  CRUSHING. 


21 


grapes  on  the  stem  ;  and  in  the  same  way  the  fermentation  will 
be  assisted,  if  the  grapes  are  over-ripe. 

When  the  grapes  are  fermented  with  the  stems,  care  must  be 
taken  that  they  do  not  remain  too  long  in  the  vat,  or  the  wine 
may  acquire  a  bitter,  disagreeable  flavor,  called  by  the  French 
gotlt  de  rape,  or  stem  flavor,  which  is  caused  by  the  bitter  prin- 
ciple contained  therein,  and  which  is  dissolved  out  by  maceration. 

To  Estimate  Tannin. — A  certain  amount  of  tannin  is  neces- 
sary to  the  proper  clearing  of  the  wine,  which  is  brought  about 
by  the  tannin  combining  with  albuminous  matters,  and  they  are 
then  precipitated,  and  the  wine  may  be  drawn  off,  leaving  them 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cask.  It  is  on  the  application  of  this  well- 
known  principle  that  Maumene  gives  a  very  simple  method  of 
ascertaining  whether  the  grapes  should  be  stemmed  or  not.  He 
says:  First  make  a  small  quantity  of  wine  without  the  stems,  and 
add  tannin,  or,  what  is  better,  a  decoction  made  by  boiling  a 
quantity  of  stems,  and  ;f  sensible  precipitation  is  produced,  it  is 
better  to  ferment  with  the  stems,  for  tannin  is  wanting ;  but  if 
the  precipitation  is  not  formed,  the  grapes  should  be  stemmed. 

Stemmers. — This  is  usually  effected  in  California  by  the  use 
of  the  common  hand  stemmer,  though  some  large  establishments 


Fig.  3. 


Wooden  Sternmer. 


are  using  a  stemmer 
run  by  steam  or  horse- 
power. The  common 
stemmer  consists  of  an 
oblong  shallow  box  or 
frame,  six  or  eight  feet 
long  by  two  wide,  or 
any  convenient  size, 
and  about  six  inches 
deep,  with  a  coarse 
wire  netting  or  grating 
stretched  across  the 
bottom.  This  grating 
is  usually  made  of 
heavy  galvanized-iron 
wire,  with  f  inch  or 


22  STEMMING  AND  GEUSHING. 

inch  meshes.  Instead  of  having  the  grating  extend  the  whole 
length,  a  portion  at  one  end  may  be  floored  with  wood,  upon 
which  a  box  of  grapes  can  be  placed  without  injuring  the  grating. 
The  only  objection  to  this  stemmer  is  that  the  grape  juice  comes 
in  contact  with  the  metal  of  the  grating,  and  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  nearly,  if  not  all,  of  the  baser  metals  are  corroded  by 
the  acids  ;  it  would  be  better  to  replace  the  wire  with  a  wooden 
grating,  as  in  France  (fig.  3). 

How  to  Remove  the  Stems.— The  grapes  are  dumped  from 
the  boxes  directly  into  the  stemmer,  and  the  workman  seizes  as 
many  as  he  can  easily  manage  with  both  hands,  and  rubs  and 
rolls  them  to  and  fro  upon  the  wire  grating,  and  the  berries,  as 
they  are  rubbed  off,  fall  through  the  meshes,  and  the  stems 
remain  in  the  hand.  The  few  grapes  that  may  remain  are 
removed  by  raising  the  mass  of  stems  and  forcibly  throwing  them 
two  or  three  times  upon  the  grating.  Sometimes  the  stems,  with 
the  few  grapes  clinging  to  them,  are  turned  over  to  another  work- 
man, who,  with  a  hay  fork,  tosses  them  about  upon  another 
grating  till  all  the  berries  are  removed.  The  stemmer  ought  to 
be  situated  over  the  hopper  of  the  crusher,  so  that  the  grapes  will 
fall  directly  into  it,  as  they  are  separated  from  the  stems. 

Crushing. —  It  is  generally  considered  essential  to  crush  the 
grapes  whether  stemmed  or  not,  although  in  some  special  cases, 
to  be  hereafter  noted,  crushing  is  omitted. 

Methods  of  Crushing. — It  is  well  known  that  in  Europe  the 
grapes  are  usually  crushed  by  being  trodden  with  the  feet  of 
men,  usually  barefooted,  but  sometimes  in  wooden  shoes,  and 
many  of  the  best  writers  of  to-day  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
wine  is  better  when  the  grapes  have  been  well  trodden  with  the 
bare  feet,  for  by  thoroughly  rubbing  the  skins  and  pounding 
them  into  a  pulp  without  breaking  the  seeds,  they  think  that 
more  color  and  aroma  are  developed  than  can  be  obtained  by 
simply  crushing  them,  as  in  a  machine,  and  afterwards  ferment- 
ing. Although  the  practice  of  treading  is  the  more  common  one 
in  Europe,  yet  there  are  exceptions,  and  in  some  places  the  crush- 
ing is  done  by  rollers  and  with  satisfactory  results.  In  Calif  or- 


STEMMING  AND  C HUSHING.  23 

nia  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  the  treading  of  grapes  as  an 
antiquated  practice,  and  a  relic  of  a  past  age,  and  it  is  almost 
universally  discarded,  being  practiced  only  occasionally  and  by 
Europeans,  who  have  not  yet  wholly  fallen  into  our  methods  of 
practice.  Those  who  are  fastidious  in  this  matter  may  rest 
assured,  that  if  they  will  drink  California  wine,  they  run  but  very 
small  risk  of  imbibing  a  liquid  which  a  man  has  had  his  feet  in. 
Aerating  the  Must. — There  seems  to  be  some  confusion  on 
this  subject,  for  some  claim  that  the  must  is  better  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  prepared  for  fermentation,  by  treading.  This  may 
be  true  of  treading  in  the  vat  "during  fermentation,  but  simply 
treading  the  grapes  to  crush  them  does  not  aerate  the  must  as 
much  as  crushing  with  rollers,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  juice 
falls  through  a  considerable  distance  in  a  finely  divided  form, 
which  thoroughly  exposes  it  to  the  air. 

Crushers. — The  machine  generally  employed  consists  of  two 
rollers  made  of  wood,  iron,  or  other  suitable  material,  6  or  8,  or 
even  more,  inches  in  diameter,  geared  together  so  that  they 
revolve  in  opposite  directions  and  towards  each  other,  and  so  that 
the  grapes  will  be  drawn  between  them  from  above.  The  rollers 
run  near  each  other,  but  do  not  touch,  so  that  the  grapes  will  be 
crushed,  and  the  seeds  remain  unbroken.  It  is  operated  by  one 
man  turning  a  crank,  either  attached  to  one  of  the  rollers  or  to  a 
Fig.  4.  pinion.  Figure  4  represents  such  a  crusher, 

except  that  in  the  figure  the  rollers  are  open- 
work, instead  of  solid,  as  they  should  be. 
It  is  surmounted  by  a  hopper  which  allows 
the  grapes  to  fall  between  the  rollers  as  they 
revolve,  and  the  whole  apparatus  should  be 
so  placed  that  the  pomace  may  fall  into  the 
fermenting  vats,  or  be  easily  conveyed  to 
Crusher.  them  or  to  the  press,  accordingly  as  it  is  to 

be  made  into  red  or  white  wine. 

Some  stemmers  have  corrugated  instead  of  plain  rollers,  but 
there  is  no  advantage  in  this,  and  unless  they  are  very  nicely 
adjusted  to  the  motion  of  the  cog  wheels,  they  may  break  the 
seeds,  which  is  always  considered  injurious  to  the  wine. 


24     .  STEMMING  AND  CRUSHING. 

Rapidity  of  Operation. — Five  men — one  to  handle  the  boxes 
of  grapes,  two  to  stem,  standing  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stemmer, 
one  to  operate  the  crusher,  and  one  to  take  the  stems  and  remove 
the  remaining  grapes  and  to  make  himself  generally  useful — can 
stem  and  crush  with  these  hand  machines  twenty  tons  of  grapes 
per  day,  enough  to  make  three  thousand  gallons  of  wine.  And 
the  work  can  be  done  much  more  rapidly  by  the  use  of  the  stemmer 
and  crusher  combined,  which  is  to  some  extent  used  in  the  largest 
establishments . 

Special  Practice. — Boireau  says  that  it  has  been  observed 
that  of  the  Medoc  wines,  those  made  without  crushing  the  grapes 
have  less  color  than  those  made  from  grapes  of  the  same  crop 
which  have  been  crushed,  but  that  they  have  a  more  refined  and 
delicate  taste  (plus  fins  de  gottt),  and  that  consequently  many  of 
the  proprietors  of  the  grands  crus  of  the  Medoc  in  those  years  which 
are  favorable  to  the  maturity  of  the  grape  do  not  crush;  they  only 
do  it  in  inferior  years,  when  the  grapes  have  not  become  suffi- 
ciently ripe,  and  when  they  fear  that  the  wine  may  not  have  a 
suitable  color.  And  in  another  place  he  tells  us  that  in  those 
grand  wines  which  are  intended  to  be  bottled,  a  superabundance 
of  tannin  and  its  consequent  roughness  may  be  avoided  by  com- 
plete stemming,  fermenting  the  whole  berries,  and  by  drawing 
from  the  fermenting  vat  at  just  the  right  time. 


FERMENTATION.  25 


CHAPTER  V. 

FEBMENTATION ITS  CAUSES. 

It  is  with  some  hesitancy  that  I  attempt  to  give  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  the  results  of  scientific  investigation  into  this  subject, 
for  fear  of  going  beyond  the  legitimate  limits  of  a  practical 
work,  as  this  book  is  intended  preeminently  for  practical  men. 
But  as  the  work  would  be  incomplete  without  it,  and  as  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  phenomena  of  fermentation,  and  of  the  dif- 
erent  influences  to  which  it  is  subject,  ate  of  vast  importance  to 
those  who  will  intelligently  apply  their  principles,  I  give  the 
following  as  but  a  brief  resume,  and  will  put  it  as  plainly  as  the 
subject  will  permit.  Most  of  the  ideas  given  below  are  extracted 
from  Schutzenberger's  work  on  fermentation. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  Fermentation,  as  (1) 

vinous,  alcoholic  or  spirituous  fermentation;  (2)  mucous  or 
viscous  fermentation;  (3)  lactic  fermentation;  (4)  ammoniacal 
fermentation;  (5)  butyric  fermentation;  (6)  putrif action;  and 
(7)  acetic  fermentation,  or  fermentation  by  oxidation,  and  others. 

Alcoholic  Fermentation  is  that  which  sugar  undergoes  under 
the  influence  of  the  ferment  or  yeast;  and  it  is  now  agreed  that 
this  ferment  consists  principally  of  an  aggregation  of  living 
organisms,  or  an  assemblage  of  microscopic  cells. 

The  Yeast  Plant. — Our  author  gives  them  the  name  of  saccha- 
romyces  cerevisice,  following  those  who  consider  it  to  be  a  species 
of  fungus,  and  states  that  it  is  now  very  generally  admitted  that 
ferments  are  fungi,  although  by  some  they  have  been  considered 
animal  in  their  nature.  These  cells  are  round  or  oval,  and  are  from 
.00031  to  .00035  of  an  inch  in  their  greatest  diameter.  "They  are 
formed  of  a  thin  and  elastic  membrane  of  colorless  celluose,  and 
of  a  protoplasm,  also  colorless,  sometimes  homogeneous,  some- 
times composed  of  small  granulations."  The  cells  are  separate 
or  united  two  by  two.  When  they  are  deposited  in  a  fermentable 
liquid,  as  a  sugar  solution  or  a  must,  small  prominences  are  seen 


26  FERMENTATION. 

to  arise  at  one  or  rarely  two  points,  the  interior  of  which  is  filled 
with  protoplasm  from  the  mother  cell;  these  prominences  grow 
until  they  have  attained  the  size  of  the  original  cell,  when  the 
base  contracts,  forming  a  kind  of  neck,  and  immediately  they 
separate  from  the  mother  cell,  and  under  favorable  conditions  one 
cell  produces  several  generations,  but  by  degrees  it  loses  all  its 
protoplasm,  which  at  last  unites  in  granules  swimming  in  super- 
abundant cellular  juice.  The  cell  ceases  to  produce,  and  dies;  the 
membrane  is  ruptured,  and  the  granular  contents  are  diffused  in 
the  liquid.  In  the  manufacture  of  beer  the  fermentation  is  of 
two  kinds:  surface  fermentation  and  sedimentary  fermentation, 
depending  upon  a  high  or  a  low  degree  of  heat.  The  surface 
saccharomyces  develop  more  rapidly  than  the  others,  are  larger, 
and  they  bud  so  rapidly  that  the  cells  which  issue  from  each 
other  do  not  separate,  but  remain  attached,  forming  ramified 
chains  of  from  six  to  twelve  or  more  buds.  The  bubbles  of  rising 
gas  have  a  greater  hold  on  these  chaplets  than  on  single  cells,  which 
causes  the  newly  formed  yeast  to  rise  to  the  surface  during  active 
fermentation.  These  organisms  or  fungi  produce  spores  which 
are  sown  on  the  surface  of  fruits,  and  get  into  the  juice  by  crush- 
ing, when  they  commence  their  reproduction  by  budding.  So 
that  the  basis  or  cause  of  the  phenomena  which  we  call  fermenta- 
tion is  the  growth  and  reproduction  of  yeast  or  ferment,  which  is 
made  up  principally  of  the  minute  organisms  just  described. 

Functions  of  Yeast. — ffeasj^/is_a_livmg  organism,  belonging 
to  the  family  of  fungi,  genus  Saccharomyces,  destitute  of  myce- 
lium, gn.pg.fr1  ft  nf  rp.prndnp.f.inTi,  like  all  the  ft1«miftTii.q.ry  ftl^g1',  by 
buds  and  spores.  Its  composition  singularly  resembles  that  of 
other  vegetable  tissues,  and  especially  the  plants  of  the  same 
family.  It  does  not  differ  essentially  from  other  elementary  cells, 
unprovided  with  chlorophyll. 

Normal  Conditions  of  the  Life  of  Yeast. — The  conditions 
which  our  author  calls  normal  in  the  life-history  of  yeast,  are 
those  in  which  it  develops  itself  and  increases  with  the  greatest 
activity  and  energy.  They  are  of  two  orders,  physical  and 
chemical. 


FERMENTATION.  27 

With  respect  to  physical  conditions,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
notice  the  temperature.  That  most  favorable  to  the  nutrition  of 
yeast,  and  that  which  is  found  advantageous  to  other  cellular 
vegetable  organisms,  is  between  25°C.  and  35°C.  (77°  and  95° F.) 
Above  and  below  these  limits,  the  vital  manifestations  do  not 
cease  until  we  descend  below  9°  C.  (48.2°  F. ),  or  rise  above  60°  C. 
(140°  F.),  the  temperature  at  which  albuminoid  principles  begin 
to  coagulate. 

With  regard  to  the  chemical  conditions,  our  author  says  that 
the  most  favorable  medium  is  that  which  contains  the  most 
appropriate  nutritive  elements.  And  as  yeast  contains  water, 
mineral  salts,  especially  potassium,  magnesium,  and  calcium 
phosphates,  therefore  water  and  the  alkaline  and  alkaline-earthy 
phosphates  will  be  necessary.  We  find,  besides,  a  great  propor- 
tion of  nitrogenous  substances,  either  albuminous  or  otherwise ; 
and  therefore  the  food  of  yeast  must  contain  nitrogen,  it  is 
supposed,  however,  that  the  cells  are  not  directly  nourished  by 
albuminoids  in  the  juices  of  fruits,  the  wort  of  beer,  or  yeast 
water,  but  by  analogous  compounds  contained  in  them,  which 
have  the  property  of  passing  by  osmose  through  the  membranes ; 
for  the  albuminoids  themselves,  it  is  said,  cannot  pass  through. 
Pasteur  has  shown  by  his  experiments,  that  mineral  salts  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  development  and  nutrition  of  the 
yeast  cell;  and  Mayer  follows  him  with  details  as  follows: 
Preparations  of  iron,  in  small  quantities,  seem  to  have  no  influ- 
ence ;  in  larger  proportions,  they  are  injurious.  Potassium 
phosphate  is  indispensable,  and  the  absence  of  lime  has  little 
effect.  Magnesium,  on  the  contrary,  appeared  to  be  very  useful, 
if  not  indispensable.  The  combinations  of  sodium  present  no 
material  effects. 

f    Sugar  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  the  nourish- 

/  ment  of  the  yeast  cells,  and  Pasteur  has  shown  that,  in  alcoholic 

^fermentation,  a  part  of  the  sugar  is  fixed  in  the  yeast,  in  the  state 

of  cellulose  or  some  analogous  body,  for,  when  the  fermentation 

is  completed,  it  is  found  that  more  yeast  is  present  than  at  the 

commencement.    Water  is  necessary,  and  the  yeast  cell  manifests 

its  activity,  develops  and  is  nourished  within  the  limits  of  40  and 


28  FERMENTATION. 

80  per  cent,  of  water,  though  yeast,  dried  with  precaution,  may 
regain  its  power  when  moistened.  And  the  fact  that  a  solution 
containing  over  35  per  cent,  of  sugar  will  not  ferment,  is  explained 
on  the  theory  that  such  a  solution  takes  from  the  cells  by  osmose 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  lower  their  hydration  below  40 
per  cent.  The  cells  of  the  Saccharomyces  cerevisice,  introduced 
into  a  liquid  medium,  absorb  oxygen  with  great  rapidity,  and 
develop  a  corresponding  quantity  of  carbon  dioxide.  This  con- 
stitutes respiration,  comparable  to  that  of  animals.  By  careful 
experiments  it  has  been  shown  that  yeast  breathes  when  placed 
in  contact  with  dissolved  oxygen,  and  the  respiration  is  more 
active  than  that  of  fishes,  and  it  plays  as  important  a  part  in  the 
life  of  those  minute  vegetable  cells  as  in  the  higher  forms  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life.  Oxygen  is  furnished  by  atmospheric 
air,  and  fermentation  is  more  rapid  when  a  large  surface  of  the 
liquid  is  exposed,  and  then  the  budding  is  more  active. 

Action  of  various  Chemical  and  Physical  Agents. —  "It 

has  long  been  known  that  certain  chemical  compounds,  espe- 
cially those  which  coagulate  albuminous  substances,  and  disor- 
ganize the  tissues,  or  which,  by  their  presence  in  sufficient 
quantities,  are  incompatible  with  life,  are  opposed  to  fermenta- 
tion ;  such  are  the  acids  and  alkalies  in  suitable  proportions, 
silver  nitrate,  chlorine,  iodine,  the  soluble  iron,  copper,  and  lead 
salts,  tannin,  phenol,  creosote,  chloroform,  essence  of  mustard, 
alcohol  when  its  strength  is  above  20  per  cent.,  hydrocyanic  and 
oxalic  acids,  even  in  very  small  quantities. 

"An  excess  of  neutral  alkaline  salts  or  sugar  acts  in  the  same 
manner,  by  diminishing  in  the  interior  of  the  cell  the  minimum 
quantity  of  water,  which  is  necessary  to  the  manifestation  of  its 
vital  activity. 

"The  red  mercury  oxide,  calomel,  manganese  peroxide,  the 
alkaline  sulphites  and  sulphates,  the  essences  of  turpentine  and 
of  lemon,  etc.,  also  interfere  with,  and  destroy  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation. 

"  Phosphoric  and  arsenious  acids  are,  on  the  contrary,  inactive." 

Experiments   have   shown   that   sparks  of   electricity  passing 


FERMENTATION.  29 

through  yeast  do  not  modify  its  power  of  changing  cane  sugar 
into  glucose,  nor  its  activity  as  an  alcoholic  ferment.  Fermenta- 
tion is  slower  in  the  dark,  and  also  in  a  vacuum.  Flour  of  sul- 
phur did  not  sensibly  affect  fermentation,  but  the  carbonic  acid 
evolved  contained  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Sulphurous  acid, 
however,  arrests  fermentation.  Yeast  is  always  acid,  but  an  addi- 
tion of  an  excess  of  different  acids  arrests  the  decomposition  of 
sugar.  If  one  hundred  times  the  amount  of  acid  contained  in 
the  yeast  is  added,  fermentation  does  not  take  place. 

M.  Dumas  has  shown  the  action  of  various  salts  on  yeast,  but 
the  subject  has  little  if  any  interest  for  the  wine  maker. 

Viscous  or  Mannitic  Fermentation  is  also  excited,  according 
to  Pasteur,  by  special  ferment  acting  on  glucose,  transforming  it 
into  a  kind  of  gum  or  dextrin,  mannite,  and  carbon  dioxide. 
This  ferment  is  also  formed  of  small  globules  united  as  in  a  neck- 
lace, whose  diameter  varies  from  .000047  to  .000055  of  an  inch. 
These  globules,  sown  in  a  saccharine  liquid  containing  nutritive 
nitrogenous  matter  and  mineral  substances,  always  give  rise  to  vis- 
cous fermentation.  One  hundred  parts  of  cane  sugar  give  :  man- 
nite, 51.09;  gum,  45.48;  and  carbon  dioxide,  6.18.  The  liquids 
which  are  most  apt  to  produce  viscous  fermentation  can  also  under- 
go lactic  and  butyric  fermentation,  but  in  this  case  the  organized 
forms  of  life  which  are  developed  in  the  liquid  are  of  a  different 
nature.  The  conditions  of  action  necessary  to  these  gummy  and 
mannitic  ferments  are  the  same  as  those  which  suit  alcoholic 
ferment.  The  most  favorable  temperature  is  30°  C.  (86°  F. )  This 
fermentation  is  what  gives  rise  to  the  disease  of  wines,  called  by 
the  French  la  graisse,  or  ropiness.  White  wine  is  more  subject 
to  it  than  red,  and  it  is  generally  due  to  the  want  of  tannin. 
(See  RopinessJ) 

Lactic  Fermentation  is  the  transformation  which  certain 
sugars,  as  sugar  of  rnilk  and  grape  sugar,  undergo,  and  by  which 
they  are  changed  into  lactic  acid.  This  takes  place  in  the  souring 
of  rriilk.  The  most  favorable  temperature  for  it  seems  to  be  about 
95°  F.  This  also  depends  on  a  special  ferment.  Sugar  solutions 
are  also  capable  of  butyric  fermentation  and  putrefaction,  and  we 


30  FERMENTATION. 

generally  see  viscous,  lactic,  and  butyric  fermentation  appear  in 
succession. 

Acetic  Fermentation  is  to  the  wine  maker  and  wine  dealer, 
after  alcoholic  fermentation,  the  most  important. 

Fermentable  matter  and  ferment  are  also  concerned  in  it,  but 
oxygen  also  is  necessary. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  alcohol  contained  in  fermented 
liquids,  such  as  wine,  beer,  etc.,  will  disappear  under  certain 
circumstances,  and  give  place  to  vinegar  or  acetic  acid,  and  that 
the  air,  or  rather  its  oxygen,  plays  a  part  in  this  reaction. 

To  the  chemist  the  reaction  is  simple,  and  is  formulated  thus : 

Alcohol.  Water.       Acetic  Acid. 

C2  H6  O  4-  02  =  H,  O  +  C2  H4  02, 

or  the  oxidation  may  take  place  by  two  reactions,  with  the  pro- 
duction of  an  intermediate  product,  aldehyde: 

Alcohol.  Aldehyde. 

0,H60  +  0  =  H80  +  C2  H4  O, 

Aldedyde.  Acetic  Acid. 

C2  H4  O  +  O  =  C2  H4  02 

According  to  Pasteur,  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  action  of  a  ferment  or  cryptogam,  Mycoderma  acefi, 
and  it  makes  its  appearance  on  the  surface  of  liquids,  while  in 
acetic  fermentation,  in  the  form  of  a  continuous  membrane, 
mother  of  vinegar,  either  wrinkled  or  smooth,  which  is  generally 
formed  of  very  minute  elongated  cells,  whose  greater  diameter 
varies  from  .000059  to  .000118  of  an  inch;  these  cells  are  united 
in  chains,  or  in  the  form  of  curved  rods.  Multiplication  seems 
to  be  effected  by  the  transverse  division  of  the  fully  developed 
cells.  The  conditions  of  nutrition  are  similar  to  those  suitable 
to  the  alcoholic  ferment,  the  hydro-carbon  matter  being  supplied 
by  dilute  alcohol.  It  may,  however,  be  supplemented  by  the 
acetic  acid  itself ;  for  if  the  process  is  left  too  long  to  itself,  the 
vinegar  loses  its  strength  by  being  consumed.  The  most  favor- 
able temperature  is  between  76°  and  82°  F. 

Antiseptic  agents,  which  arrest  the  development  of  beer  yeast, 


FERMENTATION.  31 

act  in  the  same  manner  on  the  Mycoderma  aceti.  Sulphurous 
acid  is  especially  active  in  this  manner ;  hence  the  use  of  the 
sulphur  match  in  sulphuring  wine  casks. 

There  is  another  ferment,  Mycoderma  vim,  or  flowers  of  wine, 
which  is  found  in  wine  and  other  alcoholic  liquids  exposed  to 
the  air  when  fermentation  is  over  of  has  become  languid,  which 
resembles  in  many  respects  the  acetic  ferment.  It  has  the  power 
of  producing  alcoholic  fermentation,  and  is  supposed  by  some  to 
be  derived  from  the  Saccharomyces .  Like  the  Mycoderma  aceti, 
it  is  developed  on  the  surface  of  fermented  alcoholic  liquors,  in 
the  form  of  smooth  or  wrinkled  films  or  membranes,  but  thicker 
and  more  compact.  It  grows  with  great  rapidity,  and  it  has 
been  calculated  that  one  cell  would,  in  forty -eight  hours,  produce 
about  35,378  cells.  These  cells  are  of  various  forms,  ovoid, 
ellipsoidal,  and  cylindrical,  with  rounded  extremities.  The  ovoid 
cells  have  their  greater  diameter  about  .000236,  and  their  smaller 
one,  .000157  of  an  inch.  The  cylinders  have  their  diameters 
. 00047  x  .000118  in.  The  nutritive  principles  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  mother  of  vinegar :  alcohol,  salts  and  nitrogenous 
compounds.  It  also  appears  capable  of  utilizing  for  nutrition 
the  secondary  products  of  alcoholic  fermentation,  such  as  succinic 
acid  and  glycerine.  Its  development  is  most  active  between  61 J 
and  86JF.  (See  Sherry.} 

Origin  of  Ferments. —  In  order  to  produce  the  different  kinds 
of  fermentation,  the  necessary  ferment  must  be  added,  unless  it 
is  already  contained  in  the  fermentable  matter  or  in  the  air.  In 
the  manufacture  of  beer  and  bread ,  yeast  must  be  used  ;  the  other 
kinds  of  fermentation,  except  alcoholic,  can  generally  be  pro- 
duced by  the  ferments  or  their  spores  furnished  by  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  but  Pasteur,  in  the  course  of  his  investigations,  never  • 
produced  alcoholic  fermentation  from  spores  found  in  the  air. 
But  the  germs  of  the  Saccharomyces  cerevisive  and  of  Mycoderma 
vini  seem  to  be  found  only  on  the  surface  of  fruits,  and  their 
stems,  f 

t Ferment  cells,  however,  occur  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  neighborhood  of  places 
where  alcoholic  fermentation  is  carried  on,  and  the  germs,  perhaps,  may  be  found  in  the 
atmosphere  near  a  vineyard,  and  in  those  cases  the  ferments  and  tlieir  germs  may  be  borne 
about  to  some  extent  by  the  wind. 


32  FERMENTATION. 

These  different  germs,  however,  are  all  found  in  the  must  of 
grapes,  and  in  wine,  and  are  ready  to  develop  whenever  favorable 
conditions  offer  themselves,  and  produce  diseases  in  the  wine. 
It  is  found  that  these  germs  are  killed  by  raising  the  temperature 
of  the  liquid  to  140°  F.,  and  hence  the  process  of  heating  wines 
to  preserve  them  (which  see]. 

Leaving  the  germ  theory  of  fermentation,  we  will  pass  to  what 
is  of  more  practical  importance. 


ALCOHOLIC    FERMENTATION    IN    WINE    MAKING. 

Yinous  or  Alcoholic  Fermentation  transforms  the  juice  of 
the  grape  into  wine,  and,  as  already  shown,  is  caused  by  the 
yeast  or  ferment,  which  finds  its  way  into  the  must ;  and  by  this 
fermentation  the  sugar  of  the  grape  is  changed  principally  into 
alcohol,  and  carbon  dioxide,  or  carbonic  acid  gas.  And  in  order 
to  show  the  relations  between  the  sugar  and  the  alcohol  produced, 
it  is  necessary  to  say  something  about  the  chemical  constituents 
of  each. 

Sugar. — In  general  terms,  cane  sugar  may  be  expressed  by  the 
chemical  formula,  C12'  H,2  On,  or,  in  other  words,  one  molecule 
contains  12  atoms  of  carbon,  22  of  hydrogen,  and  11  of  oxygen. 

And  the  general  term  glucose,  or  grape  sugar,  may  be  expressed 
by  the  formula  C6  H]2  O6,  or  one  molecule  contains  6  atoms  of 
carbon,  12  of  hydrogen,  and  11  of  oxygen. 

If,  instead  of  using  the  word  atoms,  we  use  the  word  pounds, 
the  chemical  formula  may  be  made  clear  to  the  unscientific. 
Taking  the  formula  for  cane  sugar,  already  given,  it  simply 
means  that  342  pounds  contain  the  following  ingredients,  in  the 
following  proportions: 

Ibp.  ibs. 

12  parts  carbon,  each  weighing  12,       -     -    -     144 
22      "      hydrogen,          "  1,       -     -     -       22 

11      "      oxygen,  "  16,       -     -    -     176 

342 


FERMENTATION.  33 

And  the  formula  for  glucose  means  that  180  pounds  contain: 

tbs.  Ibs. 

6  parts  of  carbon,  @  12,     -------     72 

12      "       hydrogen,  "    1,     -------     12 

6      "      oxygen,       "  16,     -------     96 

180 
And  the  formula  for  water  means  that  18  pounds  contain: 

Ibs.  Ibc. 

2  parts  of  hydrogen,  @    1, 2 

1  part    "   oxygen,        "16, 16 

18 

In  fermentation,  it  is  glucose  which  is  immediately  trans- 
formed, although  cane  sugar  ferments  also ;  but,  before  doing  so, 
it  becomes  changed  or  inverted  into  glucose,  and  one  molecule 
takes  up  a  molecule  of  water,  and  produces  two  of  glucose,  thus: 

Cane  Sug;ir.  Water.  Glucose. 

C12  H22  On  +  H2  O  =  2  C6  H12  O, 
342  +18       -  2  x  180  =  360. 

Or,  in  the  production  of  alcohol,  100  Ibs.  of  pure  cane  sugar 
are  equal  to  105.26  Ibs.  of  pure  grape  sugar. 

The  general  formula  for  alcohol  is  C,  H .  O,  and  for  carbonic 
acid  CO2. 

Alcohol  by  Weight  and  by  Volume.  —  The  quantity  of 
alcohol  contained  in  a  given  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  may 
be  expressed  as  per  cent,  by  weight,  or  per  cent,  by  volume. 
The  first  method  is  usually  used  by  chemists,  and  the  second  in 
commerce.  If  we  have  100  Ibs.  of  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water 
of  which  10  Ibs.  are  alcohol  and  90  Ibs.  water,  it  contains  10 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  by  weight.  If,  however,  we  have  100  gallons 
of  a  mixture  in  which  there  are  10  gallons  of  alcohol  and  90 
gallons  of  water,  we  say  that  it  contains  10  per  cent,  by  volume 
of  alcohol.  This  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
per  cent,  by  volume  and  by  weight,  although  it  is  well  known 
that,  owing  to  shrinkage,  10  gallons  of  alcohol  and  90  gallons  of 
water  do  not  produce  quite  100  gallons  of  mixture. 


34  FERMENTATION. 

Whenever  merchants  and  wine  makers  use  the  term  per  cent, 
of  alcohol,  they  mean  per  cent,  by  volume  or  measure;  arid  when- 
ever the  expression  is  used  in  this  work,  it  is  used  in  that  sense, 
unless  otherwise  expressed. 

Fermentation  —Its  Products.— Per  cent.  Sugar  to  per  cent. 
Alcohol. — In  theory,  glucose,  during  the  process  of  fermentation, 
is  entirely  changed  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid;  the  two  sub- 
stances produced  containing  the  same  elements  as  glucose,  and 
no  others.  If  there  was  no  loss  of  sugar,  or  degeneration,  as  it 
is  called,  the  reaction  would  be  exactly  expressed  as  follows: 

Glucose.  Alcohol.        Carbonic  Acid. 

C6  H]2  0(1  =  2  C2  H,,  O  +  2  C(X 

180  92         +     88 

And  the  old  authorities  said,  if  180  parts  of  glucose  produce 
92  of  alcohol,  100  will  produce  51.1111,  thus: 

180  :  92  :  :  100  :  x  ==  51.1111,  leaving  the  bal- 
ance to  be  accounted  for  by  carbonic  acid  48.8889 


100 

And  again,  if  it  takes  100  parts  of  glucose  to  produce  51.1111 
alcohol,  how  much  does  it  take  to  produce  1  per  cent,  by  weight? 

51.1111  :  1  :  :  100  :   a?  ==  1.9565. 

These  figures  are  now  true  only  of  that  part  of  the  sugar  which 
is  transformed  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide. 

Different  Authors.  -Pasteur  has  shown  that  a  portion  of 
the  glucose  was  changed  into  succinic  acid  and  glycerine,  and 
as  the  result  of  one  of  the  experiments  which  he  gives,  out  of  a 
large  number,  it  appears  that  100  parts  of  glucose  produce  about 
48.46  of  alcohol,  and  it  would  require  2.063  to  produce  1  percent, 
of  alcohol  by  weight,  and  1.65  to  produce  1  per  cent,  by  volume. 

But  this  eminent  chemist's  experiments  were  conducted  in  the 
laboratory,  and  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  so  that 
no  loss  by  evaporation  could  occur — conditions  under  which  fer- 
mentation on  a  large  scale  is  never  carried  on. 

Dr.  Guyot  states  that  it  takes  about  1.5  per  cent,  of   grape 


FERMENTATION.  35 

sugar  to  produce  1  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which  is  even  less  than 
is  required  according  to  Pasteur,  and  is  manifestly  too  little. 
And  the  statement  has  been  made,  that  a  must  containing  20  per 
cent,  of  sugar  will  produce  13  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which  is  im- 
possible. .  . 

J.  J.  Griffin  quotes  Pasteur,  and  estimating  the  average  loss 
to  be  4s  per  cent,  of  the  sugar,  deduces  the  figures  .4881  as  the 
per  cent,  by  weight  of.  alcohol  produced  by  1  per  cent,  of  grape 
sugar.  Dubief  says  that  it  takes  1.7  percent,  of  cane  sugar  to 
produce  1  per  cent,  of  alcohol  by  volume.  Mr.  Joseph  Boussin- 
gault  gives  his  experiments  on  musts  fermented  in  small  vessels 
under  conditions  similar  to  those  under  which  fermentation  is 
carried  on  in  wine  making  on  a  large  scale;  and  the  result  of  his 
researches  is  that  the  product  in  alcohol  is  about  90  per  cent,  of 
what  the  chemical  theory  calls  for:  say,  .46  by  weight  for  1  of 
sugar,  or  1.7-1- glucose  for  1  Per  cent,  of  alcohol  by  volume.  Mr. 
M.  Boussingault  gives  it  as  the  result  of  his  experiment,  that  it 
takes  1.8  per  cent,  of  sugar  to  produce  1  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

So  that  it  is  pretty  safe  to  say  that  it  takes  on  an  average  about 
1.8  of  sugar  to  make  1  of  alcohol,  making  some  allowance  for 
loss  by  evaporation,  etc. 

As  has  already  been  stated  in  the  chapter  on  Musts,  1  per  cent, 
for  every  12  should  be  deducted  from  the  percentage  of  sugar 
shown  by  the  hydrometer  for  other  matters  than  sugar. 

If,  therefore,  we  have  a  must  which  shows  24°  by  the  saccha- 
rometer,  we  will  deduct  two,  and  call  the  remainder  22,  sugar. 
Although  it  is  not  strictly  correct  to  say  that  22  divided  by  1.8  will 
give  the  per  cent,  of  alcohol  which  may  be  expected  after  ferment- 
ation, owing  to  the  well  known  variation  between  per  cent,  by 
weight  and  by  volume,  as  the  figures  increase,  yet  it  is  sufficient 
for  all  practical  purposes. 

Let  us  then  divide  22,  the  supposed  sugar  in  the  must,  by  1.8, 
the  amount  required  to  produce  1  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  we 
obtain  12  and  a  fraction.  Now  the  total  indication  by  the  sac- 
charometer  was  24  per  cent.;  if  we  divide  this  by  two  we  get  the 
same  result  in  round  numbers. 


36  FERMENTATION. 

Hence  the  rule :  one-half  of  the  figure  indicating  the  total  per 
cent,  by  the  saccharometer  (hydrometer)  is  approximately  the  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  to  be  expected  in  the  wine. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  loss  by  evaporation  and  degeneration 
may  vary  greatly  in  different  erases,  this  will  be  only  a  rough  esti- 
mate, but  it  will  prove  as  satisfactory  as  any  method  that  can  be 
adopted,  and  it  corresponds  very  closely  with  the  statement  made 
by  N.  Basset,  that  in  actual  practice,  a  must  of  20  per  cent,  gives 
only  7.88  per  cent,  of  alcohol  by  weight,  which  corresponds  with 
10  per  cent,  by  volume,  nearly;  and  it  is  the  rule^iven  byPetiot 
and  Dr.  Gall  for  a  natural  must. 

It  seems,  however,  from  what  follows  below,  that  this  is  only 
true  of  a  normal  must,  but  that  a  different  rule  applies  to  one  of 
a  very  high  degree  of  sugar. 

Limits  of  Sugar  and  Spirit. — It  is  said  that  when  a  solution  or 
a  must  contains  over  35  per  cent,  of  sugar,  it  will  not  ferment;  nor 
will  a  wine  or  other  alcoholic  mixture  which  contains  20  per  cent, 
of  spirit  ferment.  Boireau  says  that  the  maximum  of  alcohol 
which  a  wine  can  attain  by  the  fermentation  of  the  richest  must 
is  between  15  and  16  per  cent.,  and  those  wines  which  show  a 
higher  degree  have  been  fortified.  He  says  that  the  highest 
degree  of  spirit  ever  observed  by  him  in  a  natural  red  wine  was 
15.4  per  cent.,  when  it  was  a  year  old;  from  that  time  the  strength 
diminished,  but  the  wine  always  remained  sweet. 

There  is,  however,  a  remarkable  case  given,  and  which  seems 
to  be  well  authenticated,  of  an  Australian  wine  which  contained 
naturally,  by  fermentation,  32.4°  of  British  proof  spirit,  which 
is  equal  to  about  18.21  per  cent.  And  Vizitelli  states  that  Mr. 
Ellis,  of  the  firm  of  Graham  &  Co.,  asserts  that  perfectly  fer- 
mented Alto  Douro  wine  will  develop  32°  proof  spirit,  or  18  per 
cent,  of  alcohol,  and  when  made  exclusively  from  the  Bastardo 
grape,  as  much  as  34°,  or  about  19  per  cent,  of  spirit.  And  Mr. 
Vizitelli  adds  that  he  is  satisfied  from  what  he  saw  at  Jeres,  that 
sherry  wines  which  have  had  merely  1  or  2  per  cent  of  spirit 
added  to  them  will  in  the  course  of  time  indicate  34°.  To  pro- 
duce these  results  would  seern  to  require  more  than  35  per  cent. 


FERMENTATION.  37 

of  sugar,  according  to  our  rule;  but  while  it  is  approximately 
correct  to  say  that  2  per  cent,  of  sugar  produces  1  per  cent!  of 
alcohol  as  long  as  we  are  dealing  with  a  must  of  24  or  25  per 
cent,  and  under,  it  may  not  be  true  of  a  must  of  30  to  35  per 
cent.,  for  the  other  solid  matters  probably  do  not  increase  in  pro- 
portion to  the  sugar.  Therefore,  to  reconcile  this  high  degree 
of  alcohol  with  the  statement  that  a  must  containing  over  35  per 
cent,  of  sugar  will  not  ferment,  we  must  use  Pasteur's  figures, 
and  then  we  will  find  that  by  them  35  per  cent,  of  sugar  is  capa- 
ble of  producing  over  20  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  most  favorable  to  fermenta- 
tion— that  is,  at  which  it  commences  most  promptly,  and  goes  on 
the  most  rapidly — is  between  77°  and  95°  .F.,  and  it  does  not 
cease  until  the  temperature  descends  below  49°,  or  rises  above 
140.°  If  the  temperature  is  favorable,  fermentation  ought  to 
commence  in  ten  or  twelve  hours  from  the  time  the  pomace  is 
put  into  the  vat,  or  the  juice  into  the  barrel.  In  countries  where 
the  weather  is  cold  at  the  wine-making  season,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  grapes  should  be  gathered  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  or 
fermentation  will  be  long  in  commencing ;  and  if  the  weather 
continues  unfavorable,  so  that  the  grapes  do  not  become  warmed 
by  the  sun,  it  is  even  necessary  to  heat  a  portion  of  the  must 
artificially,  and  pour  it  into  the  vats  or  casks,  or  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  fermenting  house. 

Mr.  Maumene  also  recommends  that  the  vats  be  surrounded 
with  mats  of  loose  straw,  four  or  five  inches  thick,  to  be  kept  in 
place  by  a  covering  of  linen  cloth ;  and  in  this  way  the  tempera- 
ture produced  by  the  fermentation  may  be  maintained  in  cool 
weather,  without  resorting  to  fires  in  the  fermenting  house. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  that  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  atmosphere  should  be  as  high  as  that  indicated  as 
most  favorable  to  fermentation ;  for  it  commences  readily  in  a 
temperature  of  about  70°,  and  the  liquid  will  soon  rise  to  85°  or 
95°,  by  the  heat  developed  during  the  process ;  and  unless  the 
surrounding  temperature  descends  below  65°,  this  heat  will  be 
maintained,  and  the  fermentation  will  not  be  checked.  Dr. 


38  FERMENTATION. 

Guyot  says,  however,  that,  to  make  fine  wines,  it  should  be 
maintained  at  68°,  at  least ;  and  that,  in  other  cases,  it  should 
not  be  allowed  to  fall  below  60°. 

Fermenting  Houses. — It  is  important  not  only  that  ferment- 
ation should  commence  promptly,  but  that  it  should  be  main- 
tained regularly ;  and  although  a  great  amount  of  heat  is 
developed  by  fermentation,  yet  the  must  is  liable  to  cool  during 
the  night  and  cold  days,  unless  the  vats  and  casks  are  protected 
from  the  change  of  temperature,  whereby  the  fermentation  may 
be  checked,  to  the  injury  of  the  wine.  The  natural  conclusion 
is  that  the  must  ought  to  be  fermented  in  closed  places.  In 
California,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  to  construct  the  ferment- 
ing house  with  the  -same  care  required  in  colder  climates,  where 
it  is  deemed  desirable  to  furnish  them  with  double  windows  and 
doors.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  good  wine  is  made  in  this  State, 
in  places  where  the  vats  remain  out  of  doors,  shaded  only  by 
trees ;  but  the  practice  is  not  to  be  encouraged,  for  the  fermenta- 
tion will  be  checked  if  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  goes  to  60°  and  below.  In  constructing  a  fermenting 
house,  it  ought  to  be  so  arranged,  when  practicable,  as  to  be* on  a 
lower  level  than  that  of  the  stemmer  and  crusher,  and  higher  than 
the  cellar ;  for  then  the  pomace  and  must  can  be  run  immediately 
into  the  vats  and  casks,  and,  after  the  first  fermentation,  the  wine 
can  be  drawn  off  through  a  hose  into  the  casks  in  the  cellar, 
thereby  saving  time  and  labor. 


n  ED    WINE.  39 


CHAPTER  VI. 

RED    WINE. 

Red  wines  are  made  from  colored  grapes,  and  the  color  is 
extracted  from  the  skins  during  fermentation.  The  coloring- 
matter  is  blue,  but  is  changed  to  red  by  the  action  of  the  acids 
in  the  must.  (See  Coloring  Matter — Oenocyanine.)  In  order  to 
develop  this  color,  the  grapes  are  fermented,  skins  and  juice 
together,  and  the  press  is  only  brought  into  requisition  after  the 
first  fermentation  is  completed. 

Fermenting  Tanks  or  Yats. — The  tanks  or  vats  in  which  red 
wine  is  fermented,  in  France  are  generally  made  of  oak,  some- 
times of  masonry,  but  in  this  State  redwood  has*  been  almost 
universally  adopted,  and  1  am  not  aware  of  any  serious  incon- 
veniences from  its  use.  It  is  advisable  before  using  them  the 
first  time,  to  steam  them  for  several  hours,  or  thoroughly  soak 
them  to  extract  the  coloring  matter  of  the  wood. 

The  capacity  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  wine  to  be  made 
in  a  season,  varying  from  1000  gallons  to  2500  gallons  and  more, 
and  a  sufficient  number  should  be  provided  that  Bwhen  wine 
making  has  commenced,  it  can  be  carried  on  without  interrup- 
tion till  the  crop  is  worked  up.  The  number  of  workmen  must 
be  considered  a«  well  as  the  amount  of  grapes,  and  everything 
ought  to  be  so  arranged  that  the  fermentation  will  be  finished  in 
the  first  tank  filled,  by  the  time  the  last  one  is  full,  so  that  the 
first  can  be  emptied  and  filled  again,  and  then  the  second,  and 
so  on.  A  hole  must  be  bored  in  each  vat  two  or  three  inches 
from  the  'bottom  by  which  to  draw  the  wine  through  a  faucet. 
And  some  kind  of  a  strainer  must  be  put  over  this  hole  inside  to 
keep  back  the  marc — a  piece  of  perforated  tin,  a  grating  of  small 
sticks,  or  a  bundle  of  straw  or  vine-cuttings  kept  in  place  by  a 
stone. 

Filling  the  Tanks.— In  order  that  the  whole  mass  in  one  tank 
may  be  equally  fermented,  it  should  receive  its  full  complement 


40  RED    WINE. 

of  grapes  in  one  day.  By  putting  in  part  of  the  grapes  one  day 
and  part  another,  not  only  will  some  of  them  complete  their  fer- 
mentation before  the  others,  but  the  addition  of  fresh  grapes  to 
the  fermenting  mass  will  interrupt  the  fermentation,  and  prove 
injurious  to  the  wine.  The  vats  must  not  be  filled  to  their  full 
capacity,  for  during  violent  fermentation  the  marc,  consisting  of 
skins  and  seeds,  or  those  with  the  stems,  rises  to  the  top,  brought 
up  by  the  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  which  are  constantly  rising, 
and  a  portion  of  the  boiling  and  foaming  mass  may  be  carried 
over  the  top,  and  much  wine  thereby  be  lost.  They  should  only 
be  filled  to  within  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a-half  of  the  top,  and 
a  little  experience  will  show  the  proper  practice.  Guy ot  says 
that  they  should  only  be  filled  to  five-sixths  of  their  capacity  at 
most.  Another  reason  for  not  filling  the  tank  is  that  a  layer  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  will  occupy  the  space  left  vacant  by  the  pomace, 
and  prevent  the  contact  of  the  air  and  the  consequent  souring  of 
the  wine,  by  the  changing  of  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  into  acetic 
acid — vinegar. 

Red  wine  is  fermented  in  open  vats,  vats  loosely  covered,  or 
in  vats  hermetically  sealed,  and  good  wine  is  made  in  each  way. 

In  Open  Yats,  other  conditions  being  equally  favorable,  fer- 
mentation commences  more  promptly  and  is  sooner  ended, 
owing  to  the  free  access  of  the  air,  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen, 
as  already  shown,  being  necessary  to  fermentation.  Although 
fermentation  will  continue  away  from  the  air  when  once  started, 
it  will  be  slow.  The  objections  to  open  vats  are,  that  although 
there  is  a  layer  of  carbonic  acid  resting  above  the  must,  yet  it  is 
liable  to  be  disturbed  and  become  mixed  with  the  air,  and  if  the 
fermentation  is  long  continued,  a  portion  of  the  wine  may  become 
sour.  Those  who  employ  open  tanks  should  also  avail  them- 
selves of  those  conditions  under  which  the  wine  will  complete 
its  fermentation  in  a  few  days,  and  should  draw  off  promptly. 

Closed  Vats. — By  using  closed  vats  fermentation  will  be  longer 
in  commencing,  and  will  proceed  more  slowly,  but  as  already 
intimated,  the  wine  can  with  safety  be  left  longer  in  them  than 
in  open  tanks.  When  it  is  necessary  to  develop  much  color,  it 


RED   WINE. 


41 


would  be  advisable  to  use  covered  tauks,  for  the  longer  the  wine 
is  left  in  contact  with  the  skins,  the  darker  it  becomes.  The 
covering  should  be  close  enough  to  prevent  the  immediate  con- 
tact of  the  open  air,  and  yet  allow  the  escape  of  gas — of  close 
boards,  but  not  luted,  unless  provided  with  a  safety  valve. 

The    Best    Practice,  however,  in  all   cases,  whether  the  vats 
Fin-  .5.  are  closed  or  not,  is  to  have  a  false 

head  resting  directly  upon  the 
pomace,  and  which  will  keep  the 
latter  submerged  during  the  whole 


A.  B. 

process  of  fermentation.  In  this  way  good  color  will  be  devel- 
oped, and  the  marc  will  be  kept  from  the  air,  and  the  danger  of 
souring  will  be  avoided.  In  figure  5,  A  represents  a  fermenting 
vat  with  the  front  half  removed,  showing  the  false  head  in  place. 


-f 


0.  D.  G.  H. 

This  head  is  made  of  several  pieces  which  can  be  laid  one  by 
one  upon  the  pomace,  and  may  be  perforated  with  auger  holes  as 
represented  in  6',  or  may  be  a  wooden  grating,  D.  These  pieces 


42  KKD    WINK. 

or  sections  together  constitute  the  head  B,  and  are  kept  in  place 
by  two  cross  pieces,  e  e,  which  are  held  down  by  blocks  bolted 
or  pinned  to  the  inside  of  the  tank.  G  is  a  stave  with  a  block, 
/",  attached,  and  H  the  same,  showing  the  cross  piece,  e,  slipped 
under  it.  When  the  tank  is  filled  to  the  required  height,  the 
false  head  is  put  in,  resting  on  the  pomace,  the  ends  of  the 
cross  pieces  are  slipped  under  the  blocks,  and  everything  is 
ready.  As  soon  as  the  fermentation  becomes  violent,  the  whole 
will  be  submerged  in  the  bubbling  wine. 

Hermetically  Sealed  Tanks. — Closely  covered  tanks  must  be 
provided  with  a  safety  valve  or  pipe  for  the  discharge  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  leading  and  discharging  into  a  vessel  of  water,  which 
completely  prevents  contact  with  the  air.  Under  pressure  the 
fermentation  is  much  slower,  and  is  not  so  complete.  Yet 
great  advantages  are  claimed  for  this  method  by  some  writers 
who  maintain  that  by  keeping  the  cover  cool  with  wet  straw  or 
cloth,  or  by  using  a  safety  tube  in  the  form  of  a  worm  passing- 
through  a  condenser  on  the  top  of  the  vat,  the  vapors  are  con- 
densed and  fall  back  into  the  liquid,  preventing  loss  of  alcohol, 
and  increasing  the  aroma,  and  that  the  wine  acquires  a  superior 
fineness  and  velvety  smoothness  under  the  pressure  of  the  gas. 
Boireau  says  that  this  latter  quality  is  caused  by  the  complete 
dissolution  of  the  mucilaginous  matters;  and  Pasteur  has  shown 
that  more  gtycerine  is  produced  when  the  fermentation  is  slow, 
which  may  contribute  to  the  mellowness  and  smoothness. 

Practice  in  the  Medoc. — Mr.  Boireau  says  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  grand  red  wines  of  the  Medoc,  the  prime  St.  Emilion, 
•and  the  prime  Graves,  are  fermented  in  closed  vats  ;  though  a 
certain  number  of  the  viniculturists  still  follow  the  old  custom, 
and  make  their  wine  in  open  vats. 

Stirring  the  Pomace  in  the  Vats. — In  Burgundy,  and  in  some 
other  parts  of  France,  it  is  considered  necessary  to  give  the  mass 
a  thorough  stirring  (f outage)  during  the  active  fermentation,  in 
order  that  all  parts  may  be  equally  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
ferment,  and  also  that  a  good  color  may  be  developed;  and  for 
this  purpose  men  enter  into  the  vats  and  thoroughly  mix  the 


RED    WINE.  43 

pomace  and  stir  it  about  with  their  naked  bodies  and  limbs,  a 
practice  not  only  disgusting  in  the  extreme,  but  dangerous  for 
the  men,  who  are  exposed  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  carbonic 
acid.  It  is  by  no  means  a  general  practice,  and  is  of  doubtful 
utility,  even  if  it  should  be  done  by  other  agents  than  the  naked 
human  body. 

It  is  evident  that  two  opposing  forces  are  at  work  when  the 
must  is  stirred  during  fermentation.  By  the  aeration  fermenta- 
tion would  naturally  be  increased;  but  Dr.  Guyot  shows  that 
stirring  actually  diminishes  its  activity,  and  he  advocates  the 
practice  in  order  that  the  fermentation  be  not  too  tumultuous. 
The  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere  being  lower  than 
that  of  the  fermenting  mass,  aeration  by  stirring  must,  by  lower- 
ing the  temperature,  diminish  the  activity  of  the  fermentation. 
'Mr.  Haraszthy,  in  his  lecture  before  the  Convention  of  Vinicul- 
turists  in  1882,  recommended  that  the  mass  be  stirred  when  the 
fermentation  commences  to  lag,  on  the  theory  that  by  thus  mix- 
ing again  the  yeast  with  the  liquid,  so  exposing  it  again  com- 
pletely to  the  action  of  the  ferment,  fermentation  would  start 
again  with  renewed  vigor.  It  can  easily  be  stirred  with  poles 
provided  with  shoulders  or  short  cross  pieces. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  must  is  sufficiently  aerated 
by  crushing  the  grapes  with  rollers, 'and  where  the  vats  are  pro- 
vided with  a  false  head  to  keep  the  pomace  submerged,  the  wine 
will  have  sufficient  color  without  the  stirring;  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  wine  would  clear  sooner  if  the  lees  were  not  stirred  into 
it  near  the  end  of  fermentation.  Where  the  vats  are  not  covered, 
and  the  grapes  are  not  stemmed  and  not  kept  submerged,  a«crust  or 
cap  is  formed  on  the  top  of  the  fermenting  mass,  which  sours  and 
rots  if  long  exposed  to  the  air,  and  the  mixing  of  this  with  the 
liquid  has  a  most  deleterious  effect  upon  the  wine. 

When  to  Draw  from  the  Tats. — When  the  first  or  active  fer- 
mentation in  the  vats  is  completed,  the  new  wine  must  be  drawn  off 
into  pipes,  and  thus  be  separated  from  the  marc,  consisting  of 
skins,  seeds,  and  sometimes  stems,  and  also  from  the  heavy  lees 
which  has  settled  in  the  vats,  and  it  is  important  to  know  the 
proper  time  to  do  this. 


44  RED    WINE. 

The  duration  of  active  fermentation  depends  upon  several 
causes  and  conditions  as  aheady  indicated,  such  as  heat,  the 
amount  of  sugar  contained  in  the  must,  whether  the  vats  are 
covered  or  open,  the  immersion  of  the  marc,  and  whether  the 
grapes  are  stemmed,  etc.  It  may  be  completed  in  four  or  five 
days,  or  it  may  continue  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days.  In  case  of 
musts  poor  in  sugar  it  may  rarely  terminate  in  twenty -four  hours. 
In  some  parts  of  France  the  grapes  are  allowed  to  macerate  for 
weeks  and  even  months  (for  they  cannot  ferment  actively  for  that 
length  of  time),  and  what  might  be  good  wine,  thus  is  often 
spoiled. 

The  Objections  to  Long  Tatting  are  that  the  marc  will  absorb 
an  undue  amount  of  alcohol,  as  is  shown  when  it  is  submitted  to 
to  distillation  in  brandy  making,  for  marcs  which  have  remained 
long  in  the  vats  with  the  wine  yield  more  spirits,  and,  of  course, 
the  wine  is  deprived  of  so  much  strength.  This  objection,  how- 
ever, would  have  but  little  force  where  the  grapes  are  stemmed. 
Another  and  more  serious  objection  is,  that  by  a  long  exposure  to 
the  air  which  is  apt  to  take  place  when  the  vats  are  not  closely 
covered,  some  of  the  alcohol  will  be  changed  to  vinegar,  and  the 
wine  will  rapidly  degenerate,  and  become  sour.  Long  contact 
with  the  seeds,  skins  and  stems  also  produces  a  foreign  taste  in 
the  wine  known  to  the  French  as  goilf  de  rape,  stem  flavor;  and  it 
is  obvious  that  if  the  marc  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  liquid  till  it 
macerates  and  rots,  it  will  acquire  a  still  more  disagreeable  aroma 
and  flavor.  It  is  also  said  that  some  varieties  of  grapes  which 
will  not  produce  a  wine  with  a  bouquet,  when  allowed  to  remain 
long  in  the  tank,  will  develop  it  in  a  vatting  of  short  duration. 
The  onry  advantage  to  be  gained  by  leaving  a  wine  in  the  vat 
after  the  active  fermentation  is  finished,  is  in  the  way  of  color. 
When  it  is  desirable — if  it  ever  is — to  produce  a  dark-colored 
wine  at  the  expense  of  other  good  qualites,  it  may  be  left  in  the 
vat  to  soak.  Such  wines  have  their  use,  and  that  is  to  mix  with 
those  which  lack  color,  but  it  is  much  better  to  mix  in  a  quantity 
of  grapes  which  naturally  produce  good  color. 

In  making  Fine  Wines,  a  dark  color  is  not  looked  for  nor 
desired,  but  rather  a  bright  and  lively  red;  and  they  should  be 


THE 


RED    WINK.  45    . 


iillowed   to  remain   in  the  vat  only  long  enough  to  convert  the 
greater  part  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol . 

How  to  Know  when  to  Draw  from  the  Vat. — It  is  said  in 
general  terms  that  the  wine  should  be  drawn  from  the  vat  when 
the  active  fermentation  is  finished.  This  is  known  by  the  taste  of 
the  wine  by  those  long  familiar  with  the  vinous  flavor  which 
takes  the  place  of  the  sweet  taste  of  the  sugar;  it  is  also  recog- 
nized by  the  cessation  of  the  production  of  carbonic  acid  and  the 
consequent  bubbling,  the  falling  of  the  temperature,  the-settling 
down  of  the  marc,  and  by  the  clearing  of  the  liquid.  If  the  must 
or  new  wine  shows  from  0°  to  1°  by  Baume's  hydrometer,  or  from 
0°  to  2°  by  Balling's  saccharometer,  nearly  all  the  sugar  will  have 
been  converted  into  alcohol;  I  say  nearly  all,  for  all  the  sugar  is 
not  converted  till  long  after  the  wine  is  drawn  from  the  vat. 
Boireau  says  that  the  fermentation  is  yet  incomplete  when  the 
hydrometer  marks  several  degrees  of  density,  and  the  liquid  is 
warm,  sweetish,  and  muddy.  He  says,  moreover,  that  care  should 
be  taken  that  active  fermentation  has  entirely  ceased  before  put- 
ting the  wine  in  pipes,  for  if  it  is  still  sweetish  and  fermenting, 
it  will  remain  sweet  a  long  time,  and  ferments  will  often  remain 
in  suspension,  which  will  render  the  wine  difficult  to  clear,  and 
liable  to  ferment  and  become  sour. 

Method  of  Drawing  from  Vats  and  filling:  Casks.  — If  the 

pipes  are  on  the  same  level  with  the  vat,  or  higher,  the  new  wine 
is  run  from  the  vat  through  a  faucet  into  buckets  and  carried  in 
th  3m  to  the  casks  and  poured  into  these  through  a  funnel,  or  is 
run  into  a  large  receptacle  or  tub  placed  immediately  under  the 
faucet  and  pumped  into  the  casks  by  means  of  a  force  pump. 
But  the  more  expeditious  way  is  to  have  the  casks  ranged  011  a 
level  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  fermenting  tank,  and  then  to 
run  the  wine  directly  into  them  through  a  hose  attached  to  the 
faucet.  Of  course,  careful  men  must  be  in  attendance  to  watch 
the  operation,  and  close  the  faucet  as  soon  as  the  cask  is  filled, 
and  immediately  transfer  the  hose  to  an  empty  one,  so  that  the 
wine  may  not  run  over  and  waste. 

\\niere  the  wine  is  drawn  from  more  than  one  vat,  it  should 


RED   WINE. 


be  equally  distributed  through  all  the  casks,  so  that  the  quality 
may  be  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible.  If  the  press  wine  is  to  be 
mixed  with  the  vat  wine,  the  casks  should  only  be  filled  to  three- 
fourths  or  four-fifths  of  their  capacity,  in  order  to  leave  room  for 
the  former. 

Wine  Presses. — Wine  presses  are  constructed  in  several  differ- 
ent forms,  and  the  force  is  applied  by  means  of  a  simple  lever, 
consisting  of  a  long  timber  weighted  at  the  end  arid  rigged  with 
a  rope  a.nd  pulley  to  raise  and  lower  it,  or  by  means  of  a  large 
screw.  Hydraulic  presses  are  also  used  in  large  establishments. 
It  is  not  necessary  here  to  give  a  detailed  description  of  a  press 
of  either  kind,  for  the  prospective  wine  maker  will  examine  the 
different  ones  and  see  them  in  action,  and  choose  according  to  his 
Fig.  6.  means  and  necessities.  Fig.  6 

represents  screw  presses.  A 
very  simple  .one,  however,  and 
which  can  be  made  by  any  car- 
penter, consists  of  a  box  two 
or  three  feet  square,  and  a  foot 
or  more  high.  This  box,  how- 
ever, is  made  up  of  sections, 
each  of  which  is  five  or  six 
inches  high;  and  they  should  be 
constructed  of  strong  two-inch  timber,  well 
mortised  together,  and  perforated  with 
small  holes  through  which  the  wine  may 
ooze  out.  The  height,  and  consequently 
the  capacity  of  the  box  or  receptacle  will 
depend  upon  the  number  of  sections  used. 
A  broad  board  constitutes  the  bottom  of 
the  press  and  should  be  larger  than  the 
receptacle  itself,  and  be  provided  with  a  rirn 
open  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  side,  and  having  a  shallow  spout 
for  the  wine  to  run  through.  'This  bottom  is  firmly  placed  so  as 
to  incline  slightly  forward,  the  sections  are  placed  on  it,  one  011 
the  other,  till  the  box  is  of  the  desired  height,  then  the  marc 


Wine   Presses. 


RED   WINE.  47 

from  the  vat  is  filled  in  and  a  head  or  follower  fitted  to  the  inside 
of  the  box  is  placed  on  the  marc,  and  pressure  is  applied  with  a 
lever.  This  lever  is  a  strong  piece  of  timber  with  its  fulcrum 
end  placed  in  a  mortise  in  a  large  tree,  or  adjusted  in  any  other 
suitable  manner,  allowing  free  play  to  the  other  end  to  which  is 
attached  the  rope  and  pulley  to  facilitate  its  movement. 

Pressing  and  Press  Wine. — In  the  manufacture  of'all  but 
fine  wines,  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  mix  the  press  wine  with  the 
wine  from  the  vat.  And  as  the  wine  remaining  in  the  pomace 
is  about  one-fourth  of  the  whole,  it  will  be  equally  distributed 
among  all  the  casks  by  filling  with  it  the  vacancy  left  in  them. 
If  a  light  pressure  is  first  applied,  the  wine  of  the  first  pressing 
will  differ  but  little  from  the  vat  wine.  After  this,  however,  the 
marc  should  be  spaded  and  stirred  and  pressure  applied  again, 
und  the  process  repeated  till  the  wine  no  longer  flows.  During 
the  last  pressing  it  is  necessary  to  apply  so  much  force  that  a 
great  amount  of  coloring  matter  is  pressed  from  the  skins,  and 
tannin  from  the  seeds,  and  also  from  the  stems  when  not  removed, 
and  the  advantage  of  color  may  be  more  than  counterbalanced 
by  the  excess  of  tannin.  There  may  be  danger  of  giving  the 
wine  too  much  astringency  by  mixing  the  last  pressings. 

Special  Practice  for  Fine  Wines.  —Mr.  Boireau  indicates  the 
practice  in  making  common  wines,  as  follows,  as  a  warning  to 
those  who  can  make  fine  wines.  He  says  that  the  wine  which 
the  marc  contains  is  removed  by  pressing  it  almost  to  dry  ness, 
and  that  the  wine  thus  obtained  is  very  muddy,  very  harsh,  and 
sometimes  sour,  particularly  when  the  upper  part  of  the  crust  has 
not  been  removed,  where  open  vats  are  used  and  the  marc  not 
submerged.  The  greater  part  of  the  proprietors  of  the  ordinary 
growths  have  the  deplorable  habit  of  mixing  the  press  wine,  with- 
out clearing  it,  with  the  limpid  part  drawn  from  the  vat.  He  says 
that  it  should  be  kept  separate,  or  otherwise  the  better  part  of  the 
wine  will  be  made  muddy  and  difficult  to  clear. 

TREATMENT     OF    RED    WINE. 

Insensible  Fermentation.— After  the  wine  has  undergone  its 


48  ///<:/>    WINE. 

active  fermentation,  has  been  drawn  from  the  vat  and  been  filled 
into  casks,  the  latter  should  be  at  once  stored  in  a  suitable  place 
above  ground  of  even,  moderate  temperature,  or  in  an  under- 
ground cellar  whose  temperature  is  not  much  below  60 J  F.  The 
new  wine  still  contains  some  sugar,  and  a  slow  fermentation  goes 
on,  bubbles  of  gas  are  given  off,  and  sediment  falls  to  the  bottom. 
This  is  called  the  secondary  or  insensible  fermentation,  and  when 
this  is  finished  and  no  more  gas  arises,  the  wine  has  become  clear. 
A  good  deal  of  the  carbonic  acid  that  rises  in  bubbles  is  not  pro- 
duced by  the  insensible  fermentation,  but  has  become  dissolved 
in  the  wine  during  the  active  fermentation,  and  is  gradually  given 
off  with  the  new  gas  produced.  While  the  gas  is  produced  in  the 
cask,  it  must  not  be  closely  bunged,  but  the  .bung-holes  should 
be  loosely  covered  with  a  vine  leaf,  a  block,  an  inverted  bung,  or 
a  bag  of  sand,  so  that  the  gas  may  escape.  Various  patent  bungs 
have  been  devised  with  the  same  object. 

The  wine  should  be  tasted  at  each  filling  of  the  cask  during 
this  period  to  ascertain  whether  the  insensible  fermentation  has 
entirely  ceased,  which  may  be  known  from  the  fact  that  it  has 
lost  the  peculiar  pungent  flavor  of  the  carbonic  acid.  As  soon 
as  this  fermentation  is  ended,  the  casks  should  be  tightly  bunged 
with  conical  bungs,  which  can  be  easily  removed  during  the 
period  when  it  is  necessary  to  fill  up  frequently. 

Ulling  or  Filling  Up. — Owing  to  the  escape  of  gas  and  to  evap- 
oration, vacant  spaces  are  rapidly  formed  in  the  casks  which 
must  be  filled  with  the  same  kind  of  wine  as  that  contained  in 
them.  It  is  well  to  keep  a  certain  amount  of  the  wine  of  each 
vintage  in  smaller  vessels,  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  such  as 
barrels,  kegs,  demijohns,  and  bo'ttles,  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  vintage.  If  one  vessel  is  partly  emptied,  the  remaining  wine 
should  be  put  into  a  smaller  one.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
all  of  the  casks  be  kept  full  or  the  wine  will  spoil.  (See  excep- 
tions under  Sweet  Wine. )  For  this  purpose,  during  the  first  week 
they  should  be  filled  every  day  or  two,  then  two  or  three  times  the 
next  week,  and  later,  once  a  week,  once  in  two  weeks,  and  finally 
oncu  a  month.  This  is  governed  a  good  deal  by  the  rapidity  of  the 


RED    WINE.  49 

evaporation,  which  depends  upon  the  cellar  or  place  of  storage. 
This  operation  is  performed  by  means  of  any  vessel  with  which  the 
wine  can  easily  be  poured  into  the  bung  hole;  the  convenient  uten- 
sil, however,  is  a  vessel  in  the  form  of  a  small  watering  pot  with  a 
Flfl.  7.  Fief.  8. 


Tlling    Pots. 

long  spout,  with  which  the  bung  can  easily  be  reached.     (Figs.  7 
and  8. )    A  good  substitute  is  an  ordinary  tin  funnel  with  a  flexible 
rubber  tube  attached  to  the  small  opening. 
Where  the  casks  are  piled  up  in  the  cellar  so 
that  the  bungs  cannot  otherwise  be  reached, 
""^   a  funnel  called  the  Z  funnel  (fig.  9)  is  used, 
which  is  provided  with  a  long  spout  or  tube 

turning   at  right  angles  to  the  upper  part,  and  whose  tip  turns 
down,  and  which  can  easily  be  passed  between   the  casks  to  the 
bung.     If,  however,  the  bung  cannot  be  reached,   a  small  hole 
is  bored  in  the  upper    part  of   the   head   of   the  cask,  and  the 
wine  put  in  with  a  Z  funnel  whose  tube  turns  at  right  angles 
Fie/.  10.         but  does  not  turn  down  at  the  tip  (fig.  10.)     The 
vent  is  opened  in  the  highest  part  of  the  bulge, 
and  wine  is  poured  into  the  funnel  whose  tip  is  in 
Z  Funnel.       the  end  hole  till  it  rises  to  the  vent,  which  is  then 
closed,  and  the  funnel  is  removed  and  the- hole  closed. 

As 'some  wine  is  liable  to  be  lost  in  ulling  a  cask  whose  bung  is 
out  of  sight,  to  avoid  this,  an  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  water- 
ing pot,  similar  to  tigs.  7  and  8,  has  bsen  devised,  but  whose  top  is 
entirely  covered,  the  wine  being  poured  into  it  through  a  tube 
which  is  closed  with  a  cork  when  in  use.  The  vent  is  near  the  tip 
of  the  spout  on  the  under  side,  so  that  the  wine  will  run  as  long 
as  the  cask  is  not  full,  but  will  stop  as  soon  as  the  vent  is  covered 


50  RED    WINE. 

by  the  wine  rising  in  the  cask.     It  is  convenient  to  have  a  stop- 
cock on  the  spout. 

Many  of  these  implements  are  provided  with  a  socket  to  hold 
a  candle. 

Summary  of  the  Rules  for  the  Treatment  of  New  Red  Wines. 

1.  Put  the  casks,  well  bunged,  in  a  cellar  or  other  well  closed 
place,  and  keep  them  constantly  full,  by  frequently  and  regularly 
filling  them  with  wine  of  the  same  kind. 

2.  Rack  the  wine  as  soon  as  the  insensible  fermentation  has 
ceased  and  the  wine  has  become  limpid,  i.  e.,  about  December; 
rack  again   before  the  vernal  equinox;  towards  the  summer  sol- 
stice;   and   also   near  the  autumnal   equinox.     Racking  should 
always  be  done,  if  possible,  during  cool  weather.    (See  Racking.) 

3.  To  prevent   secondary    fermenations,  draw   off  the   wine 
whenever  by  tasting  you  recognize  by  the  flavor  that  it  is  com- 
mencing to  work. 

If  the  wiiies  are  bright,  avoid  fining,  and  so  preserve  their 
fruity  fiavor;  but  if  they  remain  muddy  after  the  second  racking, 
line  them  after  the  third  drawing  off  with  the  whites  of  eggs, 
and  leave  them  the  shortest  possible  time  on  the  finings. 

Mr.  Boireau  says  that  by  such  treatment  wines  will  be  obtained 
limpid  and  free  from  secondary  fermentations,  and  that  grand 
wines  will  so  preserve  their  fruity  fiavor;  while  if  they  are  allowed 
to  work  again  after  the  cessation  of  the  insensible  fermentation, 
they  will  lose  their  fruity  fiavor  and  mellowness,  and  become  too 
dry.  In  order  to  avoid  this  dry  ness  produced  by  secondary  fer- 
mentations, which  will  considerably  diminish  the  value  of  the 
wines,  and  especially  of  grand  wines,  some  wine  makers  place 
the  casks  with  the  bung  on  one  side  after  the  June  racking  ; 
this  practice  should  not  be  followed,  for  the  elevation  of  the 
temperature  at  that  season  is  liable  to  set  them  fermenting. 

The  idea  is  in  all  cases  to  avoid  mixing  the  lees  with  the  wine, 
and  if  young  wines  are  to  be  shipped  before  the  arrival  of  the 
period  of  the  first  racking,  they  should  nevertheless  be  carefully 
drawn  off,  if  they  have  already  become  (dear,  for  to  mingle  again 


RED   WINE.  51 

the  lees  with  wine,  predisposes  it  to   secondary  fermentations, 
and  renders  it  difficult  to  clarify. 

Treatment  of  Old  Red  Wines.— Wines  after  the  fourth  racking 
are  treated  as  old  wines.  When  they  have  acquired  a  clean  taste, 
are  limpid  and  no  longer  ferment,  the  casks  should  be  carefully 
tilled  and  tightly  bunged,  and  they  should  be  stored  in  a  suitable 
place,  with  the  bung  turned  to  one  side.  The  bung  being  thus 
constantly  wet  swells  and  exactly  fills  the  hole,  the  wine  keeps 
better,  there  is  less  loss  by  evaporation,  and  constant  filling  up  is 
avoided. 

If  it  happens  that  by  bad  treatment  the  wines  are  not  clear 
and  behave  badly,  they  should  receive  the  necessary  treatment, 
and  be  clarified  before  permanently  put  away  with  the  bung  at 
the  side. 

In  cellars  and  other  well  closed  places,  old  red  wine,  clean 
tasting,  bright  and  quiet,  stored  in  good,  well  hooped. casks;  need 
only  two  racking s  per  year,  one  in  March  and  the  other  in  Sep- 
tember, unless  for  some  reason  it  loses  its  limpidity  by  entering 
again  into  fermentation,  which  will  be  discovered  by  tasting  from 
time  to  time.  In  that  case,  it  should  immediately  be  drawn  oft' 
without  regard  to  the  date  of  the  former  racking,  and  then  fined. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  leave  ullage  in  the  cask  of  old 
wine,  by  frequent  samplings  and  tastings.  And  when  it  occurs, 
in  order  to  avoid  its  effects,  the  wine  may  immediately  be  drawn 
into  a  smaller  cask,  arid  this  is  necessary  more  frequently  in  airy 
storehouses  where  the  evaporation  is  greater  than  in  cellars. 

Boireau  says  that  if  these  rules  are  carefully  observed  the  wines 
will  improve,  and  develop  all  the  qualities  which  by  their  nature 
they  are  susceptible  of  acquiring.  *The  greater  or  less  degree 
of  fineness  which  they  acquire  by  aging  under  proper  condi- 
tions results  principally  from  two  causes:  The  first  is  the 
deposit  of  coloring  matter  and  divers  salts  which  the  new  wine 
contains  in  dissolution,  and  which  become  insoluble  by  entering 
into  new  combinations,  and  which  in  their  turn  are  removed  at 
each  racking,  with  the  lees;  the  second  cause  is  the  transformation 
of  the  tannin,  which  gives  the  wine  a  certain  degree  of  roughness, 


52  RED   WINE. 

into  gallic  acid,  and  its  extraction  in  the  insoluble  combinations 
which  it  forms  with  the  different  principles  contained  in  the  wine 
and  with  the  finings  which  are  introduced.  It  follows  that  old 
wine  loses  part  of  its  color  and  soluble  salts,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  tannin  which  it  originally  contained.  Its  taste  is*  more 
delicate,  its  flavor,  which  was  masked  by  these  different  matters, 
comes  out  better,  its  bouquet  commences  to  develop,  and  its 
mellowness  is  more  pronounced. 

These  remarks  are  more  particularly  applicable  to  grand  wines, 
for  in  many  of  the  ordinary  ones  the  fruity  flavor  which  they  have 
when  new  is  lost  before  the  end  of  the  first  year,  because  the 
mucilages  and  pectine,  which  give  them  their  mellowness,  are 
either  precipitated  with  the  lees  or  are  destroyed  by  insensible 
fermentation.  In  general  these  wines  lack  firmness,  body  and 
tannin,  and  many  of  them  show  a  strong  tendency  to  lose  their 
color. 

The  time  necessary  for  wines  to  remain  in  wood  in  order  to 
acquire  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  which  they  can  acquire 
in  casks,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  wine;  wines  of  strength 
and. body  require  more  time  than  feeble  ones. 

Our  author  says  that,  on  the  average,  the  poorest  wines  of  the 
Medoc  become  bright  about  the  end  of  two  years,  and  if  they 
are  kept  longer,  they  lose  their  mellowness.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  the  firm  and  full-bodied  wines  of  the  same  localities  require 
to  remain  in  wood  a  year  longer  to  arrive  at  perfect  maturity. 
Certain  wines  strongly  charged  with  tannin,  coming  from  certain 
localities,  and  those  made  from  the  verdot  grape,  are  long  in 
developing,  but  they  keep  so  much  the  longer. 

When  they  have  attained  their  entire  development  and  the 
separation  of  the  lees  is  complete,  they  must  be  bottled,  for  they 
will  lose  their  qualities  if  left  in  casks.  In  bottles  they  arrive  at 
perfection;  they  acquire  bouquet  while  they  preserve  their  mellow- 
ness, but  in  casks,  they  finally  lose  their  fruity  flavor  aiid  velvety 
smoothness,  and  become  dry. 

And  he  gives  the  following 


RED   WINE.  53 

Summary  of  Kuks  for  the  (are  of  Old  Red  Wines. 

1.  They  should  be  kept  in  places  perfectly  closed,  and  before 
turning  the  bung  to  one  side,  we  should  be  satisfied  that  they  are 
perfectly  bright,  quiet,  and  well  behaved. 

2.  They  should  be  drawn  from  the  lees  twice  a  year;  the  casks 
should  be  kept  full;    and  they  should  be  kept  from  secondary 
fermentations  by  watching  and  opportune  racking. 

3.  Keep  down  the  loss  by  evaporation  by  all  means  possible, 
and  keep  them  in  close  cellars,  in  strong,  well  hooped  casks,  and 
avoid  ullage.. 

4.  Bottle  them  before  they  lose  their  fruity   flavor,  and  as 
soon  as  they  cease  to  deposit. 

Thus  will  they  acquire  all  the  qualities  of  which  by  their  nature 
they  are  susceptible. 

But  if  they  are  kept  in  places  to  which  the  air  has  free  access, 
the  evaporation  will  be  great;  and  if  the  casks  are  left  with  ullage 
caused  by  too  frequent  sampling,  or  too  infrequent  racking,  they 
will  work,  become  dry,  lose  their  mellowness,  arid  become  slightly 
affected  by  acetic  acid,  produced  by  contact  with  the  air. 


54  WHITE  WINE. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WHITE    WINE. 

Made  from  both  Heel  and  White  Grapes.— As  the  color  of 
grapes  resides  entirely  in  the  skins,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
varieties  such  as  the  Tienl-uriers  and  the  American  variety  Is.nnir, 
which  have  colored  juice,  with  these  exceptions,  white  wine  may 
be  made  from  both  white  and  colored  grapes. 

Differences  between  Red  and  White  Wine. — Instead  of  put- 
ting the  pomace  into  fermenting  vats,  it  is  taken  immediately  to 
the  press,  and  the  juice  is  fermented  by  itself,  free  from  stems, 
skins,  and  seeds,  and  is  therefore  not  only  free  from  the  coloring 
matter  contained  in  the  skins,  but  also  from  the  numerous  mat- 
ters that  are  contained  in  red  wine,  extracted  from  the  pomace 
during  fermentation.  It  is  true  that  white  wine  may  be  made 
from  white  grapes  by  the  process  that  is  employed  in  making  red 
wine  from  colored  grapes,  but  then  it  ceases  to  be  what  is  com- 
monly called  white  wine,  and  possesses  all  the  characteristics  of 
red  wine  except  its  color,  which  of  itself  has  little  effect  upon  the 
wine,  except  to  change  its  appearance;  for  when  white  wine  has 
been  colored  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  very  dark 
wine,  it  remains  white  wine  still  in  all  its  other  characteristics, 
and  the  difference  is  readily  detected  by  experts. 

Hygienic  effects  of  Red  and  of  White  Wine.—  Dr.  Guyoi 
says  that  white  wines  generally  are  diffusible  stimulants  of  the 
nervous  system;  if  they  are  light,  they  act  rapidly  upon  the 
human  organism,  and  excite  all  its  functions.  But  they  escape 
as  readily  by  the  skin  and  excretory  organs,  and  their  effect  is  of 
short  duration.  Red  wines ,  on  the  other  hand,  are  tonic  and  per- 
sistent stimulants  of  the  nerves,  muscles,  and  digestive  organs; 
their  action  is  slower  and  more  prolonged;  they  do  not  increase 
perspiration  or  the  excretions,  and  their  action  gonnmlly  is  astrin- 
gent, persistent,  and  concentrated. 


WHITE  WINE.  55 

• 

Process  of  Making. — As  the  must  comes  from  the  press  it  is 
either  immediately  run  into  casks,  or  is  first  put  into  a  vat  to  settle. 
In  the  latter  case  it  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  settling  vat  from 
twelve  to  twenty -four  hours,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  yeasty 
parts  settle  to  the  bottom,  a  thick  scum  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
the  must  becomes  partially  cleared.  The  scum  is  then  skimmed 
from  the  top,  and  the  liquid  is  drawn  off  into  casks,  leaving  the 
heavy  lees.  By  this  means  a  great  part  of  the  fermentive  matter 
is  immediately  removed,  and  the  wine  does  not  ferment  as  thor- 
oughly nor  as  rapidly  as  it  otherwise  would,  and  retains  a  portion 
of  its  sugar  and  its  sweetness  longer.  In  the  Champagne  dis- 
tricts the  musts  for  sparkling  wines  are  thus  treated.  If  the 
weather  is  very  warm,  it  may  not  be  practicable  to  do  this,  because 
fermentation  will  set  in  before  the  must  has  time  to  settle.  If, 
however,  it  is  desired  to  make  a  dry  wine,  the  must  is  not  put 
into  a  settling  vat,  but  is  run  from  the  press  directly  into  the 
casks. 

The  Barrels  in  which  white  wine  is  fermented  and  stored  are 
generally  of  small  size,  of  a  capacity  of  from  30  to  150  gallons, 
or  say  50  or  (>0  gallons  on  an  average,  arid  it  is  considered  in 
France  that  it  preserves  its  good  qualities  in  casks  of  moderate 
size  better  than  in  large  ones.  It  is  to  be  understood,  however, 
that  it  is  considered  advisable  in  most  parts  of  France  that  white 
wine  should  retain  a  portion  of  its  swreetiiess  and  be  mellow  rather 
than  dry;  but  if  it  is  desirable  to  make  a  dry  wine,  larger  casks 
may  be  used  for  fermenting  and  storing.  (But  see  Summary  of 
Ru.le&,  below,  and  C'ax/'x.) 

Filling  the  Barrels  during  Fermentation.— A  question  upon 
which  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion,  is  whether  the  casks 
should  be  immediately  tilled  to  their  full  capacity  and  kept  filled 
up  during  the  first  fermentation,  so  that  the  scum  and  foam  will 
be  thrown  out  of  the  bung,  or  whether  a  vacant  space  shall  be  left 
in  each  barrel,  so  that  all  the  matter  thrown  up  by  the  fermenta- 
tion shall  remain.  The  objections  to  allowing  the  wine  to  boil  over 
are  that  much  good  wrine  is  thereby  lost,  and  the  outside  of  the 
barrels  and  the  floor  of  the  fermenting  house  or  cellar  becomes 


56  WHITE  WINE. 

• 

foul.  When  the  active  fermentation  ceases,  whatever  has  been 
thrown  up  in  the  form  of  a  dirty  scum  will  settle  to  the  bottom 
with  the  rest  of  the  lees,  and  is  no  more  injurious  than  the  latter. 
If,  however,  the  foam  is  allowed  to  run  over  by  keeping  the 
barrels  full,  a  portion  of  the  yeasty  parts  will  be  thrown  out, 
fermentation  will  not  go  011  as  tumultuously  nor  be  as  complete, 
and  the  wine  will  longer  retain  a  portion  of  its  sweetness.  So 
that  the  practice  in  this  behalf,  as  in  most  others  where  there  is 
a  diversity  of  practices  in  making  white  wine,  depends  upon 
whether  it  is  desired  to  make  a  very  dry  wine,  or  one  that  retains 
a  portion  of  its  sugar.  But  in  the  Champagne  districts,  although 
they  allow  the  marc  to  settle,  they  do  not  allow  it  to  run  over  in 
fermenting. 

Pressing  and  Filling. — The  pomace  is  pressed  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  marc  of  red  wine,  in  two  or  three  different  press- 
ings. The  usual  practice  is  to  fill  the  barrels  with  an  equal 
amount  of  must  from  each  pressing,  so  that  the  contents  of  all 
shall  be  uniform  in  quality.  If  it  is  known  beforehand  how  much 
wine  can  be  made  from  a  given  quantity  of  grapes,  the  requisite 
number  of  barrels  will  be  provided  for  each  lot,  and  the  must  of 
each  pressing  will  be  equally  distributed  in  all.  (See  General 
Chapter. ) 

Different  kinds  of  White  Wine. —  Boireau  divides  white 
wines  into  three  classes:  dry,  mellow,  and  sweet,  whose  charac- 
teristics depend  essentially  upon  the  density  of  their  musts. 

In  Dry  White  Wines  fermentation  is  complete,  and  all  the 
sugar  that  is  appreciable  by  the  taste  or  the  hydrometer,  except 
the  small  amount  changed  into  other  substances,  is  transformed 
into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  The  grapes  are  gathered  as  soon 
as  ripe,  and  are  not  allowed  to  shrivel.  The  density  of  the  must 
rarely  exceeds  13  Baume. 

Mellow  White  Wines  are  those  which  preserve  a  small 
quantity  of  sugar  after  the  tumultuous  fermentation  has  ceased, 
and  which  gives  them  mellowness  and  nnotuosity.  To  produce 
these  wines,  it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  density  of  tlio  must, 
which  is  accomplished  in  the  Gironde  by  Icjiving  tlu-  grapes  upon 


WHITE  WINE.  57 

the  vines  until  they  shrivel  and  turn  brown  (white  grapes  are 
used),  and  they  are  gathered  by  several  successive  pickings.  The 
density  of  the  must  is  from  12°  to  15°  Baume.  These  wines 
occupy  the  place  between  dry  wines  and  sweet  wines. 

White  Sweet  Wines  (vius  de  liqueur)  are  those  which  pre- 
serve a  considerable  portion  of  their  sugar,  which  renders  them 
very  sweet.  And  in  order  that  they  may  retain  their  sweetness 
in  aging,  the  must  should  mark  15°  to  20°  Baume. 

The  Grand  White  Wines  of  France  and  Germany  do  not 
require  any  different  treatment  from  that  already  described, 
except  that  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  in  assorting  the  grapes 
and  allowing  them  to  arrive  at  the  period  of  greatest  maturity, 
and,  of  course,  they  are  made  from  the  choicest  varieties. 

In  describing  the  condition  in  which  the  grapes  are  when 
gathered,  the  French  use  the  word  pour r is,  which  is  usually 
translated  rotten.  But  Boireau  says  that  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  the  grapes  are  spoiled  (gates]  because  they  are  pourris;  the 
condition  which  is  sought  is  a  sort  of  natural  dessication  effected 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which  evaporates  a  part  of  the  water  of 
vegetation  and  concentrates  the  saccharine  matter,  as  well  as  the 
savory  and  aromatic  principle,  and  bakes  the  grape,  as  it  were. 
If  the  weather  remains  dry,  the  grapes  remain  for  a  fortnight 
perfectly  ripe  without  any  deterioration  of  the  skin,  but  little  by 
little  it  changes  from  yellow  or  golden  to  brown,  loses  its  con- 
sistency and  rots,  or  rather  cracks  and  gives  way.  It  is  then  that 
dessication  commences;  the  rays  of  the  sun  penetrate  the  thin 
pellicle  and  volatilize  the  water  of  vegetation.  In  order  to  bet- 
ter accomplish  this  result  a  portion  of  the  leaves  are  removed 
from  the  vine  when  the  grapes  are  nearly  ripe.  Those  grapes 
only  are  picked  which  are  sufficiently  shriveled;  if  only  a  part 
of  the  cluster  is  ripe,  a  few  grapes  are  removed  at  a  picking. 
The  vines  are  usually  gone  over  in  this  manner  three  times.  At 
Barsac  and  Sauternes  the  white  wines  are  known  by  three  differ- 
ent names,  indicating  in  their  order  their  strength  and  sweetness: 
The  first,  or  sweetest,  are  called  teles;  the  second,  centres;  and  the 


58  WHITE  WINE. 

third,  qtieu&s;  or  head  wines,  middle  wines,  and  tail  wines.  If  the 
must  does  not  indicate  more  than  12J,  13J,  or  14J  Baume,  the  wine 
cannot  be  expected  to  preserve  its  sweetness  and  mellowness  in 
aging.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  the  sweet  head  wines,  having  the 
inimitable  flavor  (goM  de  roti)  which  they  get  from  the  great 
maturity  of  the  grapes,  the  density  must  be  allowed  to  increase 
till  Baume's  instrument  marks  18J  to  20°.  Wines  from  must  of 
16°  Baume  will  preserve  their  sweetness  for  a  long  time,  but  as 
they  develop  a  large  amount  of  alcohol,  it  is  preferable  that 
they  be  sweeter,  and  that  the  must  mark  18°  to  20°.  As  these 
wines  do  not  develop  more  than  15  to  16  per  cent,  of  alcohol  by 
fermentation,  they  will  not  bear  transportation  through  tropical 
climates  with  safety,  and  it  is  necessary  to  add  spirit  enough  to 
raise  the  strength  to  18  per  cent.  If,  however,  they  are  carefully 
managed,  and  kept  in  a  cool  cellar,  they  will  remain  sweet. 

Treatment  of  White  Wines.— During  the  active  fermentation 
they  should  be  left  in  a  moderately  warm  place  of  even  tempera- 
ture, and  until  the  foaming  has  ceased.  Then,  they  may  be  stored 
in  a  cooler  place  if  desirable,  or  may  be  left  where  they  are.  But 
then  the  bungs  should  be  loosely  closed  with  a  chip  or  anything 
that  will  allow  the  escape  of  gas,  and  the  casks  must  be  filled  up 
every  two  or  three  days.  When  the  gas  has  "ceased,  they  should 
be  bunged  tight,  and  filled  up  once  or  twice  a  week,  according 
to  the  rapidity  of  evaporation,  until  the  first  racking.  ( See  below. ) 

To  keep  Sweet.  —If  it  is  desired  that  the  wine  should  preserve 
a  portion  of  its  sweetness  and  remain  mellow,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  disturb  it  after  it  has  commenced  depositing,  for 
thereby  the  sediment  and  ferment  will  be  again  mingled  with  the 
wine  and  its  fermentation  rendered  more  active,  all  its  sugar  may 
be  transformed,  and  the  wine  become  dry.  Fermentation  may  be 
checked  at  any  period  by  sulphuring,  as  is  described  under  the 
proper  head  (see  Sulphuring  and  Unfermented  Must),  and  so  the 
wines  may  be  made  dry  or  sweet  at  will;  but  if  the  sweet  ones 
contain  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  alcohol  they  will  ferment.  By 
sulphuring  they  may  be  kept  sweet  from  one  vintage  to  another, 
even  if  the  musts  have  not  a  high  degree  of  sugar;  but  they  must 


WHITE  WINE.  59 

be  constantly  kept  under  the  influence  of  sulphurous  acid  and 
protected  from  the  air.  But  the  frequent  sulphuring  and  racking 
which  they  must  necessarily  undergo  gives  them  an  odor  and  a 
flavor  of  sulphur;  and  if  they  are  not  watched  they  ferment. 

The  care  to  be  given  to  white  wines  after  the  first  racking 
depends  upon  their  character. 

In  the  Case  of  Dry  Wines,  whose  sugar  has  all  been  trans- 
formed, the  same  attentions  are  to  be  bestowed  as  in  the  case  of 
new  red  wines,  and  the  rules  laid  down  are  referred  to.  (See  Red 
Wine.} 

Mellow  White  Wines,  that  is,  those  which  retain  a  portion  of 
their  sweetness  after  the  tumultuous  fermentation,  particularly  if 
they  do  not  carry  15  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  require  the  greatest 
amount  of  care  in  order  to  preserve  their  mellowness  in  aging; 
for  if  left  to  themselves  they  will  again  enter  into  fermentation, 
and  become  dry.  Such  wines  should  be  preserved  against  all 
ulterior  fermentations,  and  should  be  made  perfectly  bright  and 
freed  from  ferments,  but  this  should  be  done  with  as  little  fining 
or  filtration  as  possible,  which  diminishes  their  mellowness. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  that  the  less  alcohol  that  mellow  wines 
have,  the  more  susceptible  they  are  to  fermentation,  and  the  con- 
sequent loss  of  their  mellowness. 

Those  which  have  15  per  cent,  and  have  kept  their  mellowness 
after  the  first  fermentation,  do  not  lose  it  as  readily  as  those  of  a 
less  degree.  If  they  have  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  spirit  and  are 
sweet,  to  retain  their  sweetness,  they  must  be  completely  clarified 
to  free  them  from  ferments;  and  in  some  cases  it  is  necessary 
not  only  to  rack  them,  but  at  the  same  time  to  sulphur  them,  and 
fine  them  with  gelatine  after  adding  tannin. 

Such  wines,  not  having  naturally  terminated  their  fermenta- 
tion, which  was  arrested  by  sulphurous  acid,  reiterated  rack- 
ings,  the  extraction  of  ferments,  and  the  lowering  of  the 
temperature — have  a  natural  tendency  to  ferment;  and  the 
arrested  fermentation  readily  recommences  if  the  wine  is  left 
to  itself,  if  vigilance  is  relaxed,  if  the  temperature  increases, 
or  if  subjected  to  the  movement  of  transportation. 


60  WHITE  WINE. 

On  the  contrary,  in  those  which  have  acquired  the  largest 
amount  of  alcohol  possible  by  fermentation  (between  15  and 
16  per  cent.),  no  new  spirit  is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the 
sugar,  except  in  case  of  loss  of  strength  by  evaporation  or  other 
enfeebling  cause. 

Summary  of  Rules  for  the  treatment  of  mellow  white  wines, 
according  to  Boireau : 

1.  They  should  be  stored  in  perfectly  closed  places,  in  strong, 
well  hooped  casks. 

2.  The  casks  should  always  be  kept  tightly  bunged,  and  con- 
stantly full,  by  frequent  and  regular  ullings,  with  bright  wine  of 
the  same  quality,  and  having  the  same  temperature. 

3.  They  should  become  bright,  be  protected  against  secondary 
fermentations,  and   freed   from   the   yeast  which   they   contain 
by  rackings  during   the  first  year,  according  as  their  lees  are 
deposited.     Fining  should  not  be  resorted  to  except  when  they 
cannot  be  cleared  by  racking  at  the  proper  time  (rigorously  pro- 
tected from  contact  with  the  air)  into  a  cask  sulphured  with  a 
double  square  of  a  sulphur  match. 

4.  When  they  have  been  three  or  four  years  in  wood,  if  they 
are  not  then  bottled,  they  should  be  racked  and  transferred  to 
tuns  where  they  receive  the  same  care;  the  tuns  should  be  first 
tempered  with  wines  of  the  same  class. 

5.  They  must  be  constantly  watched  and  frequently  tasted  to 
assure  one's  self  that  they  do  not  enter  into  fermentation;  if  they 
do,  they  must  be  racked  at  once. 

Racking. — When  they  remain  calm  after  the  insensible  fer- 
mentation is  terminated,  whether  they  are  old  or  young,  they 
should  be  racked  three  times  each  year;  first,  at  the  sprouting  of 
the  vine  in  the  spring,  in  March,  before  the  equinox;  secondly, 
at  the  flowering  of  the  vine  in  June,  before  the  summer  solstice; 
and  thirdly,  at  the  ripening  of  the  grape  in  September,  before 
the  autumnal  equinox.  (See  Hacking.) 


CASKS.  61 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

CASK'S. 

Casks  are  almost  universally  made  of  oak,  though  other  mate- 
rial has  been  tried,  but  generally  to  be  abandoned  in  favor  of  the 
first  named.  Large,  covered  tanks  of  redwood  are  used  to  some 
extent  in  California  for  storing  red  wine,  being  first  well  steamed 
to  extract  the  coloring  matter  of  the  wood,  but  they  are  not  con- 
sidered desirable,  and  tyad  better  be  replaced  by  oak  casks. 

Oak  Wood. — In  France  very  nice  distinctions  used  to  be  made 
as  to  the  kind  and  nationality  of  the  wood  used,  the  shook  from 
the  north,  Dantzig,  Lubeck,  Memel,  Riga,  and  Stettin,  taking 
the  first  rank,  that  from  America  the  second,  and  that  known  as 
Bosnian,  from  the  southern  provinces  of  Austria  and  the  north 
of  Turkey  in  Europe,  the  third,  and  that  of  France  the  fourth. 
That  from  America  is  the  most  pliable,  but  is  liable  to  be  found 
worm-eaten . 

All  kinds  of  oak  wood  contain  in  different  proportions  fourteen 
different  principles,  several  of  which  are  dissolved  by  wine,  and 
among  the  most  important  of  which  are  tannin,  gallic  acid,  a 
bitter  extractive,  mucilage,  vegetable  albumen,  and  several  of 
pronounced  smell  and  taste.  The  Bosnian  oak  contains  the  most 
tannin  and  soluble  matter,  and  is  suitable  for  highly  colored 
wines.  But  no w-a-days  there  is  not  so  much  stress  laid  upon  the 
quality  of  the  wood  as  formerly.  Their  extracts  serve  often  to 
correct  some  of  the  defects  of  the  wine,  and  many  of  them  are 
neutralized  by  the  ingredients  of  the  latter.  By  the  introduction 
of  their  tannin  and  albumen  the  clarification  of  wine  is  facilitated; 
but  none  but  new  wine  whose  insensible  fermentation  is  not  yet 
completed  should  be  put  into  new  casks,  for  they  cause  older 
wines  to  lose  their  transparency,  and  give  them  a  woody  flavor 
which  may  last  a  long  time.  Therefore,  temper  your  new  casks 
with  new  wine. 

Storing  Casks. — Casks  should  be  kept  in  a  closed  place,  not 


62  CASKS. 

so  dry  as  to  cause  much  shrinkage,  nor  so  damp  as  to  cause 
mould.  In  California  during  the  summer,  there  is  no  danger  from 
the  latter,  but  the  former  should  be  guarded  against.  In  winter, 
the  reverse  is  the  rule.  Where  casks  are  to  be  kept  a  long  time 
empty,  they  should  be  sulphured  and  tightly  bunged,  and  the 
sulphuring  should  be  repeated  every  six  months.  But  they  must 
be  carefully  washed  before  putting  wine  into  them.  They  are 
less  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  borer  if  stored  in  a  dark  place. 

New  Casks. — Before  putting  wine  into  a  new  cask,  it  is  ordi- 
narily sufficient  to  give  it  a  thorough  washing  with  boiling  water. 
Pour  in  one  or  two  gallons  of  hot  water, ^bung  it  up,  and  roll  it 
and  shake  it  about  till  it  is  thoroughly  rinsed,  letting  it  rest 
awhile  on  each  end,  and  not  only  will  this  sufficiently  cleanse  the 
cask,  bul  will  show  if  there  are  any  leaks.  When  the  water  is 
nearly  cold,  let  it  run  out,  and  thoroughly  rinse  with  cold  water, 
and  turn  down  the  bung-hole  and  leave  till  well  drained. 

Mr.  Maigne  recommends  that  a  couple  of  pounds  of  salt  be 
dissolved  in  the  first  water,  and  that  the  second  washing  be  made 
with  a  decoction  of  peach  leaves.  Often  the  casks  are  soaked  for 
a  day  with  cold  water,  then  washed  with  lime  water,  prepared  by 
adding  four  pounds  of  lime  to  two  gallons  of  boiling  water  for 
a  100-galloii  cask.  After  thorough  agitation,  it  is  washed  with 
cold  water.  Sometimes,  too,  the  cask  is  washed  with  a  gallon  or 
so  of  boiling  wine,  but  it  is  an  unnecessary  waste. 

Mr.  Boireau  says  that  when  it  is  necessary  to  put  old  or  very 
delicate  wines  into  new  casks,  the  greater  part  of  the  soluble 
matters  can  be  extracted  in  the  following  manner:  Pour  in  about 
two  gallons  of  boiling  lye  made  from  ashes  or  potash,  or  other 
alkaline  substance,  such  as  slacked  lime  or  pulverized  chalk, etc., 
for  they  will  dissolve  out  more  of  those  soluble  matters  than  pure 
water.  After  thoroughly  agitating  the  cask,  pour  out  the  lye, 
and  repeat  the  process;  afterwards  rinse  with  boiling  water,  and 
run  it  out  before  cold;  then  wash  with  cold  water  acidulated  with 
one-tenth  part  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  enfeebles  the  solubility 
of  these  matters;  finally,  rinse  with  cold  water  and  drain. 

These  latter  operations  may  be  avoided  by  first  washing  witli 


CASKS. 

hot  water,  and  then  filling  the  casks  with  com! 
color  of  that  intended  to  be  put  into  them,  and  leavm) 
about  two  weeks. 

And  before  filling  them  with  a  grand  red  wine,  it  will  be  well 
to  moisten  the  inner  walls  of  the  cask  with  a  glass  or  so  of  good, 
old  brandy. 

Old  Casks,  or  those  which  have  been  in  use,  should  be  well 
washed  as  soon  as  emptied,  and  the  washings  should  be  repeated 
with  clean  water  until  it  runs  out  perfectly  clear.  Oftentimes  the 
cask  will  have  more  or  less  lees  adhering  to  its  inner  walls,  which 
cannot  be  removed  by  an  ordinary  washing,  but  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  use  of  the  rinsing  chain.  This  chain  is  about  six  feet  long, 
consisting  of  links  made  of  square  iron  whose  corners  will  more 
readily  detach  the  lees.  One  end  is  attached  to  a  long  conical  bung 
Fig.  11.  to  keep  it  from  falling  into  the  cask,  and  the  other  is 
•armed  with  a  square  block  of  iron  of  a  size  to  easily 
go  into  the  bung-hole  (fig.  11).  After  pouring  in 
two  or  three  gallons  of  boiling  water,  leave  the  cask 
for  a  while  so  that  the  lees  may  become  softened,  then 
introduce  the  chain  by  the  bung-hole,  and  close  it 
with  the  bung  at  the  other  end  of  the  instrument. 
Lin  Thoroughly  roll  and  agitate  the  cask  till  the  chain 
and  its  iron  block  have  removed  the  lees  so  that  they  will  run  out 
with  the  water.  Repeat  the  operation  with  clean  water  as  often  as 
necessary,  and  rinse  till  the  water  runs  out  limpid,  and  let  the 
cask  drain. 

Fig.  12. 

To  Examine  the  Inside  of  a  Cask,  an  instrument 
called  a  visitor  is  used.  This  is  simply  a  piece  of  heavy 
wire  bent  into  a  loop  or  handle  at  the  upper  end,  with 
the  lower  end  turned  up  and  bent  around  into  the  form 
of  a  small  ring  into  which  a  candle  can  be  inserted  (tig. 
12).  Put  a  piece  of  a  candle  into  this  candlestick  or 
socket,  light  it,  and  lower  it  into  the  cask  through  the 

^2  bung,  and  the  interior  can  be  inspected. 

Visitor. 


64  CASKS. 

Empty  Casks  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  long 
without  Washing;  as  soon  as  the  lees  are  removed,  they  should 
be  rinsed  as  already  mentioned,  and  they  should  not  be  put  to 
drain  in  the  sun,  for  the  heat  will  transform  the  alcohol  remain- 
ing into  vinegar  in  a  few  hours. 

Sulphuring  Casks. — If  the  cask  is  to  be  kept  empty  for  some 
time,  after  it  has  been  washed  and  then  drained  for  a  few 
minutes,  it  should  be  sulphured  by  burning  in  it  a  piece  of 
sulphur  match  about  an  inch  square,  and  it  should  then  be  left 
to  drain  dry.  After  twenty -four  hours,  burn  in  it  three  or  four 
inches  of  the  match,  and  bung  it  up  with  the  gas  in  it.  Store  it 
in  a  suitable  place  as  described  for  new  casks,  and  sulphur  it 
every  three  months.  (See  Sulphuring.) 

Condition  to  be  Examined.— In  using  an  old  cask,  as  well 
as  a  new  one,  the  first  thing  to  ascertain  is  if  it  leaks.  If  the 
hoops  are  loose,  they  should  be  driven;  then  poilr  in  two  or 
three  pails  of  water,  and  stand  the  cask  alternately  on  each  end, 
and  if  it  is  found  to  leak,  soak  it  till  it  is  tight.  If  the  leaks 
cannot  be  stopped  by  driving  the  hoops  and  by  soaking,  it  must 
be  repaired. 

The  next  thing  to  ascertain  is,  if  the  cask  has  become  sour, 
mouldy,  or  has  been  otherwise  injuriously  affected,  as  it  is  liable 
to  be  if  put  away  without  being  carefully  washed  and  cared  for. 
This  can  be  ascertained  by  examining  with  the  visitor,  or  by 
smelling.  If,  when  the  candle  or  a  piece  of  lighted  sulphur 
match  is  lowered  into  the  cask,  it  ceases  to  burn,  the  cask  proba- 
bly contains  a  noxious  gas,  which  must  be  expelled.  This  may 
be  done  by  blowing  in  the  bung-hole  with  a  hand-bellows  till  the 
air  is  changed,  or  by  standing  the  cask  on  its  lower  end  with  the 
hole  in  the  upper  head  open,  and  the  open  bung  turned  towards 
the  wind.  If,  however,  it  is  in  the  condition  which  the  French 
call  event  e,  which  corresponds  with  that  diseased  condition  of  wine 
called  by  the  same  name  and  which  we  call  flatness,  the  gas  being 
carbonic  acid,  and  heavier  than  air,  will  run  out  of  its  own  accord 
if  the  open  bung  is  turned  down  and  the  cask  left  for  a  while  in 
that  position. 


CASKS.  65 

Flatness  in  the  Cask,  as  we  will  call  it  for  want  of  a  better 
term,  Boireau  says,  consists  in  the  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  which  is  produced  .in  the  interior,  and  is  generally  found  in 
casks  which  have  been  bunged  up  without  washing,  and  which 
gives  them  an  odor  of  stagnant  lees  with  slight  acidity,  and  will 
extinguish  the  sulphur  match.  After  the  bad  air  has  been  expelled 
the  cask  should  be  well  washed  with  the  use  of  the  chain.  A 
cask  which  has  contained  wine  that  has  become  flat  should  receive 
the  same  treatment.  If  a  large  tun  is  to  be  treated,  the  foul  air 
should  be  expelled,  and  a  man  should  not  enter  till  a  light  will 
burn  in  it.  (See  the  disease,  Flatness.) 

Acidity  will  be  found  in  the  cask  if  it  is  left  for  several  days 
uncared  for;  the  alcohol  contained  in  the  wine  remaining  on  the 
inside  of  the  cask  acidifies  in  contact  witJi  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
and  is  soon  changed  into,  acetic  acid,  and  the  change  is  much 
more  rapid  in  a  high  temperature.  Instead  of  being  simply  flat, 
the  cask  is  now  really  sour,  and  smells  of  vinegar.  The  treat- 
ment consists  in  either  removing  or  neutralizing  the  acid.  The 
first  can  be  done  by  steam.  Turn  the  bung-hole  down,  and  con- 
duct a  jet  of  steam  into  the  cask  either  through  the  faucet-hole 
or  the  bung;  the  water  condensed  from  the  steam  charged  with 
acid  runs  out  at  the  bung-hole,  and  the  process  must  be  con- 
tinued till  the  water  no  longer  has  an  acid  flavor. 

Where  it  is  not  convenient  to  use  steam,  rinse  the  cask  by  using 
the  chain,  and  scald  it  out  with  hot  lye  made  from  wood  ashes 
or  potash,  or  with  quicklime  dissolved  in  hot  wafer.  Give  it 
several  rinsings  with  the  alkaline  solution  without  allowing  it 
to  cool,  and,  if  possible,  fill  it  with  cold  water  and  let  it  soak 
three  or  four  days,  and  rinse  as  usual.  If  the  water  is  allowed 
to  remain  longer  in  the  cask  it  may  become  stagnant. 

Mouldy  Casks. — Oasks  may  become  mouldy  inside  when  left  in 
a  damp  place,  if  the  bungs  are  left  out,  or  if  they  are  leaky 
through  defective  staves  or  hoops,  sometimes  even  when  they 
have  been  sulphured,  and  much  more  if  they  have  not  been. 
This  condition  is  recognized  by  a  mouldy  smell.  The  surest  way 
to  treat  a  mouldy  cask  is  to  take  out  the  head,  and  give  it  a  thor- 


66  CASKS. 

ough  scrubbing  with  a  stiff  broom  and  water.  If  after  removing 
the  mould  the  staves  resume  the  color  of  wine-stained  wood,  it  is 
proof  that  the  wood  has  not  been  affected,  and  the  head  may  be 
replaced,  and  the  cask  rinsed  in  the  usual  way.  If,  however, 
after  removing  the  mould,  the  wood  is  found  to  be  of  a  brown 
color,  it  is  more  or  less  rotten. 

Rottenness  is  due  to  the  same  causes  as  niouldiness,  and  when 
the  inside  of  a  cask  is  decayed,  it  is  no  longer  fit  for  wine.  If, 
however,  the  mouldy  cask  is  brown  only  in  spots,  they  should  be 
entirely  scraped  off,  and  then  it  may  be  used.  But  it  is  best  not  to 
put  good  wine  into  such  casks,  for  there  is  danger  of  spoiling  it. 

Brandy  Casks,  when  emptied,  should  simply  be  bunged  up, 
without  washing,  as  the  alcohol  remaining  will  have  a  preserva- 
tive effect.  They  should  not  be  kept  in  a  place  which  is  too 
damp. 

Do  not  Sulphur  Old  Brandy  or  Whisky  ('asks  which  have 
recently  been  emptied  or  in  wh\ch  any  alcohol  remains,  or  you 
may  cause  a  disastrous  explosion.  In  preparing  new  casks  for 
the  reception  of  brandy,  they  should  be  washed  and  left  to  drain 
for  twenty -four  hours  and  until  they  are  dry,  and  if  they  are  to  be 
kept  some  time,  throw  in  a  glass  or  two  of  brandy,  bung  tightly, 
and  roll  and  shake  till  the  inside  is  moistened  with  the  liquor. 
If  they  are  to  be  used  at  once,  they  ought  to  be  first  soaked  with 
water  for  three  or  four  days  to  remove  the  woody  taste. 

Boireau  says  that  common  wines  may  be  put  into  brandy  bar- 
rels, or  even  oil  barrels  which  have  not  become  rancid  (olive  oil 
barrels,  I  presume),  but  that  fine  wines  should  never  be  put  into 
them.  He  also  adds  that  wine  should  not  be  put  into  casks 
which  have  been  used  for  rum,  kirsch,  vinegar,  absinthe,  ver- 
mouth, or  any  other  liquor  having  a  strong  odor,  traces  of  which 
will  be  preserved  in  the  pores  of  the  wood,  even  after  the  staves 
have  been  scraped. 

Cask  Borers. — There  is  a  beetle  which  is  very  destructive  of 
casks. in  California,  which  Mr.  J.J.  Rivers,  curator  of  the  museum 
of  the  University,  describes  as  Sinoxlyloti  dective  of  the  family  of 


CASKS.  67 

Bostrichidae.  In  a  paper  read  before  the  Anthrozoic  Club,  and 
^reported  in  the  Rural  Press,  Vol.  XX,  p.  153, 1880,  he  states  that 
at  the  request  of  Mr.  Schram,  of  Napa  county,  he  experimented 
with  the  insect  in  order  to  ascertain  a  remedy  for  the  ruin  caused 
by  it.  He  says  that  "  Its  primary  mischief  is  caused  by  the  habit 
of  the  parent  insect  boring  a  hole  three  or  more  inches  for  the 
purpose  of  depositing  eggs.  As  casks  are  usually  much  less  than 
three  inches  in  thickness,  the  beetle  taps  the  liquid  contents,  and 
loss  accrues  by  leakage.  The  remedy  I  first  thought  of  was  to 
select  some  species  of  wood  suitable  for  cask  making  that  would 
be  unpalatable  to  this  insect.  My  endeavors  in  that  way  have 
resulted  in  failure  for  the  reason  that  this  beetle  appears  to  have 
no  particular  dislike  to  oak,  chesnut,  pine,  whitewood,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  eucalypti.  The  next  step  was  to  saturate  the  outside 
of  the  cask  with  a  strong  solution  of  alum  water  applied  hot, 
and  when  dry,  a  coat  of  linseed  oil,  this  latter  to  prevent  the 
alum  from  being  washed  out,  as  it  would  be  in  time.  This  proved 
a  success,  for  all  the  examples  treated  with  the  solution  were 
untouched,  while  the  unprepared  were  riddled  by  the  borer." 
The  insect  is  more  destructive  to  casks  stored  in  light  places;  it 
is  therefore  better  to  keep  them  in  the  dark. 

The  Size  of  the  Casks  is  a  matter  of  a  good  deal  of  import- 
ance. For  shipping,  the  ordinary  pipe  or  puncheon  holding 
from  150  to  200  gallons  is  of  a  convenient  size  for  handling,  but 
for  storing  it  is  better  to  use  as  large  a  vessel  as  possible,  and 
where  the  quantity  stored  is  large,  tuns  of  from  1000  to  3000 
gallons  or  more  in  size  are  far  preferable.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
a  well  known  fact  that  wine  made  at  the  same  time,  of  grapes  of 
like  varieties,  from  the  same  vineyard,  and  under  the  same  appa- 
rent conditions,  turns  out  quite  differently  in  different  casks,  and 
the  contents  of  one  cask  may  far  excel  in  quality  that  of  another. 
In  order  to  insure  uniformity  in  a  large  quantity  of  wine,  it  is 
necessary  to  store  it  in  large  receptacles. 

Another,  and  perhaps  still  more  important  consideration,  is 
that  there  is  much  less  loss  by  evaporation  when  the  wine  is  stored 
in  large  casks.  The  evaporation  in  a  small  barrel  will  be  almost 


68  CASKS. 

as  great  as  in  a  cask  three  or  four  times  the  size,  and  to  keep 
the  small  one  full  will  require  about  the  same  amount  of  wine  af 
each  ulling,  which  must  be  performed  nearly  as  often.  There 
are  two  reasons  for  this:  first,  because  the  staves  of  small  cask? 
are  thinner,  and  secondly,  because  in  them  a  greater  surface  oi 
wine  is  exposed  to  evaporation,  according  to  the  volume,  than  in 
the  case  of  the  larger  vessel. 

Guyot  says,  however,  that  the  larger  the  receptacles,  othei 
conditions  being  equal,  the  more  rapid  the  development  of  the 
wines,  and  the  sooner  they  go  through  the  periods  of  their  life, 
and  arrive  at  decrepitude.  He  says  that  the  greater  part  of  wines, 
especially  light  wines  and  white  wines,  cannot  endure  a  long 
sojourn  in  tuns,  vats,  and  cisterns.  They  go  through  the  phases 
of  their  life  with  a  rapidity  fatal  to  their  good  qualities;  never- 
theless, this  fact  may  be  utilized  to  hasten  the  epoch  when  wine 
may  be  used  or  put  upon  the  market;  also  to  produce  dry  wines, 
to  vinify  sweet  ones,  and  to  age  those  of  good  body.  If,  there- 
fore, his  theory  is  well  founded — and  we  know  that  fermentation 
once  established  is  more  active,  if  the  mass  is  great — the  intelli- 
gent man  will  act  in  this  behalf  as  circumstances  require.  II 
would  seem,  however,  that  a  large  mass  would  be  less  affected  by 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  therefore,  better  protected 
from  their  consequent  ill  effects. 

And  Boireau  recommends  that  white  wines  be  stored  in  tuns, 
when  mature,  as  already  mentioned.  '  (See  Agiuy.) 


SULPHURING.  69 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SULPHURING ARRESTING  FERMENTATION . 

Casks  are  sulphured  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  activity 
of  the  ferments  contained  in  the  lees  which  may  remain  in 
them,  and  thereby  to  prevent  their  moulding  or  souring,  and  must 
and  wine  are  sulphured  to  prevent  or  to  check  fermentation,  and 
white  wine  also  to  keep  it  from  turning  yellow. 

Sulphurous  Oxide,  or  Sulphur  Dioxide,  is  produced  by 
burning  sulpur.  It  is  a  colorless  gas,  of  a  suffocating  odor,  and 
is  composed  of  equal  weights  of  sulphur  and  oxygen,  or,  one 
part  of  the  former  and  two  of  the  latter,  SO.2,  and  with  water 
becomes  sulphurous  acid.  It  arrests  fermentation  in  two  ways: 
first,  it  absorbs  oxygen  with  avidity,  and  thereby  removes  what 
may  be  in  the  must  or  wine,  or  in  the  cask,  thus  taking  away  one 
of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  life  and  activity  of  the  ferment. 
(See  Fermentation.)  In  the  second  place,  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen,  sulphuric  acid  is  formed  from  the  sulphurous  acid,  in  a 
highly  concentrated  state,  which  is  destructive  of  the  life  of  the 
ferment.  , 

The  Sulphurer,  or  Sulphur  Burner,  the  instrument  Fig.  14. 
used  for  the  purpose  indicated,  consists  of  a  wire  with  a 
Fig.  13.  hook  at  one  end,  and  the  other  attached  to  the 
centre  of  a  long,  conical  bung  (fig.  13).  It  is 
convenient  to  have  the  upper  end  pass  entirely 
through  the  bung,  allowing  the  latter  to  move 
up  and  down  on  the  wire,  so  that  the  hook  can 
be  raised  or  lowered,  according  to  the  position 
to  be  occupied  in  the  cask.  This  is  used  by 
attaching  the  sulphur  match  to  the  hook  and 
lowering  it  into  the  cask,  after  lighting  it.  The 
objection  to  this  form  of  instrument  is,  that,  the 
coal  or  cinder  left  on  the  hook,  after  burning  the 
Sulphurer.  match, may  fall  into  the  cask  and'  give  the  wine 
an  unpleasant  flavor.  To  avoid  this,  Mr.  Maumene  Sulphurer . 


70  SULPHURING. 

invented  a  sulphurer,  provided  with  a  deep  perforated  porcelain 
cup,  into  which  the  match  is  placed  and  in  which  it  burns,  and 
which  retains  the  carbonized  linen  (fig.  14).  A  piece  of  wire 
cloth  bent  into  a  cup  of  a  similar  form  and  attached  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  wire  answers  the  purpose  very  well. 

Sulphur  Matches  or  Bands  may  be  purchased,  or  they  may 
be  easily  manufactured.  To  make  them,  melt  roll  brimstone 
(stick  brimstone),  or  what  is  better,  flowers  of  sulphur,  over  a 
slow  fire  (sulphur  melts  at  115°  C.  or  239°  F.);  tear  linen  or  cot- 
ton cloth  into  strips  an  inch  and  a-half  wide  and  10  or  12  inches 
long,  and  dip  them  into  the  melted  sulphur,  and  lay  them  aside 
to  cool.  Then  dip  again,  and  repeat  the  process,  dipping  and 
cooling,  till  the  coating  of  sulphur  is  of  the  required  thickness, 
and  they  should  be  thickly  coated,  or  it  may  be  necessary  to  burn 
too  much  linen  to  get  sufficient  gas.  If  the  sulphur  is  over- 
heated, the  match  will  be  dark-colored. 

Sweet  scented  powders  are  often  added  to  the  sulphur,  whose 
essential  oils  are  disengaged  when  the  sulphur  is  burned,  and 
the  cask  is  perfumed  by  their  vapors.  The  substances  usually 
employed  are  ginger,  cinnamon,  the  flowers  of  the  stock  gilly, 
iris,  lavender,  thyme,  violet,  etc.,  and  the  matches  prepared  with 
the  addition  of  them  is  generally  preferred. 

Mr.  Maumene  says  that  the  smallest  amount  of  this  volatile  oil 
gives  a  perfume  to  the  wine,  which  is  generally  advantageous, 
but  Boireau  is  of  opinion,  however,  that  these  substances  check 
the  combustion  of  the  sulphur,  and  in  a  measure  neutralize  its 
action,  and  he  prefers  the  sulphur  pure. 

To  Sulphur  a  Cask,  take  a  piece  of  the  sulphur  match  and 
light  it  and  lower  it  into  the  middle  of  the  cask  by  means  of  the 
sulphur  burner,  and  lightly  put  in  the  bung  of  the  instrument. 
By  applying  the  ear  to  the  staves,  it  can  be  ascertained  if  the 
match  is  burning.  If  the  air  is  foul  in  the  cask,  and  the  match 
will  not  burn,  the  noxious  gas  must  be  expelled  as  described 
under  the  head  of  Casks.  When  the  fire  is  extinguished  the 
burner  is  withdrawn,  care  being  taken,  if  the  hook  is  used,  not 
to  drop  any  of  the  carbonized  linen  into  the  cask.  If  that  should 


SULPHURING.  71 

happen,  the  cask  must  be  washed  again.  As  the  burning  sul- 
phur fills  the  cask  with  gas,  which  exerts  considerable  pressure, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  bung  is  not  blown  out  into  the 
face  of  the  operator. 

Sometimes  a  strip  of  the  sulphured  cloth  is  lighted  at  one  end 
and  lowered  into  the  cask,  the  other  end  being  secured  by  putting 
in  the  bung.  This  is  objectionable,  because  it  leaves  the  debris 
of  the  match  sticking  to  the  bung  and  the  stave,  which  may  give 
a  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  wine.  As  already  mentioned  under 
the  head  of  Casks,  never  burn  a  match  in  a  cask  containing 
alcohol. 

To  Sulphur  Wine,  if  the  cask  is  only  partly  full,  operate  the 
same  as  in  sulphuring  an  empty  cask,  only  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  lower  the  match  into  the  wine.  Here  the  sulphur  burner 
with  a  movable  bung  comes  in  play.  If  the  cask  is  full,  the  gas 
may  be  drawn  in  by  burning  a  match  close  to  a  hole  bored  in  the 
head  of  the  cask  somewhat  higher  than  the  faucet,  drawing  from 
the  latter  at  the  same  time.  It  is  evident  that  while  the  wine  runs 
from  the  lower  hole,  the  gas  will  be  drawn  in  at  the  vent.  Where 
it  is  necessary  to  leave  a  cask  with  a  vacancy  in  it  for  some  time, 
flowers  and  souring  may  be  prevented  by  burning  in  it  a  piece  of 
sulphur  match  and  bunging  it  up,  and  the  process  should  be 
repeated  every  two  weeks,  and  besides  as  often  as  the  bung  is 
removed  for  any  purpose.  It  is  better  always  to  keep  the  cask 
full,  for  in  time  the  sulphurous  gas  will  communicate  a  disagree- 
able taste  to  the  wine,  which  it  takes  a  long  time  to  remove. 

Sulphuring  should  be  Avoided  in  Certain  Cases.— Ropy 
wines  should  not  be  sulphured,  for  the  presence  of  oxygen  is 
necessary  in  or"der  to  help  their  fermentation;  nor  should  those 
wines  be  sulphured  which  it  is  desirable  to  keep  in  a  state  of 
effervescence.  Sulphur  should  be  very  sparingly  used  in  connec- 
tion with  red  wines,  as  it  causes  them  to  lose  a  portion  of  their 
color  by  rendering  insoluble  the  coloring  matter,  and  precipi- 
tating it;  and  for  the  same  reason  it  is  used  for  bleaching  white 
wines,  and  it  prevents  the  latter  from  turning  yellow.  Liqueur 
wines  which  are  slow  of  fermentation  should  not  be  sulphured, 
for  they  need  all  the  natural  aids  to  fermentation. 


72  SULPHURING. 

Fermentation  is  Arrested,  sometimes,  in  the  manufacture  of 
white  wines,  by  drawing  them  off  ftito  well  sulphured  casks,  using 
two  or  three  squares  of  the  match,  if  the  fermentation  is  not  very 
tumultuous;  but  if  it  is  very  active,  it  may  be  treated  as  mentioned 
below  for  musts.  And  in  most  cases  the  proper  practice  is,  where 
wine  needs  sulphuring,  to  draw  it  off  into  the  sulphured  cask, 
and  in  this  way  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  wine  is  more  thor- 
oughly exposed  to  the  action  of  the  gas. 

Unfermented  Must. — By  sulphuring  the  must,  fermentation 
is  prevented,  and  thereby  is  produced  what  the  French  call  mute 
wine;  and  it  is  the  must  of  white  grapes  as  it  comes  from  the  press 
that  is  more  generally  subjected  to  the  process.  It  is  first  allowed 
to  settle  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  white  wine,  but  it  must.be 
drawn  from  the  vat  as  soon  as  signs  of  fermentation  appear,  and 
bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  rise  to  the  surface.  And  to  have  the 
must  clear,  it  must  be  closely  watched,  for  as  soon  as  fermenta- 
tion sets  in,  it  becomes  turbid.  The  must  should  be  freed  from 
all  fragments  of  stems,  skins,  seeds,  etc.,  and  should  therefore 
be  strained  as  it  runs  from  the  press. 

It  is  Prepared  in  Two  Different  Ways. — First,  the  cask  must 
be  scalded,  rinsed,  and  drained  in  the  usual  way,  and  then  as 
much  sulphur  must  be  burned  in  it  as  can  be  consumed,  or  until 
the  match  goes  out  for  want  of  oxygen.  Then  the  cask  must  be 
rapidly  made  half  full  of  the  must,  and  closely  bunged.  It 
should  then  be  rolled  and  thoroughly  shaken  until  the  gas  has 
been  well  absorbed  by  the  juice.  The  must  is  then  drawn  off 
without  allowing  it  to  come  in  contact  with  the  air  (See  Racking], 
and  into  another  cask  which  has  been  sulphured  in  the  same 
manner,  and  is  treated  as  before.  While  the  second  *cask  is  being 
agitated,  sulphur  is  again  burned  in  the  one  just  emptied,  until 
it  goes  out,  and  then  the  must  is  transferred  back  in  the  same 
manner,  and  is  again  shaken.  It  is  subjected  to  this  operation 
four  times,  and  the  cask  is  finally  filled  with  must  treated  in  the 
same  way,  and  tightly  bunged.  The  more  successful  will  the 
operation  be,  the  more  the  liquid  is  kept  from  contact  with  the  air, 
and  therefore  this  method  is  preferable  to  the  next.  The  second 


SULPHURING.  73 

method  is  as  follows:  burn  in  an  empty  cask  matches  represent- 
ing a  couple  of  ounces  of  sulphur;  pour  in  about  live  gallons  of 
must,  bung  it  up  and  thoroughly  shake;  take  out  the  bung  and 
put  in  another  lighted  match;  if  it  will  not  burn  for  want  of 
oxygen,  the  air  must  be  renewed  by. bio  wing  in  the  cask  with  a 
bellows.  Then  burn  the  match  in  the  cask,  and  afterwards  pour 
in  live  gallons  more  of  must,  bung  and  shake  as  before.  Con- 
tinue the  process  till  the  cask  lacks  about  five  gallons  of  being 
full.  Then  five  gallons  must  be  sulphured  in  another  cask,  and 
the  cask  filled  up  with  this  and  tightly  bunged.  Of  course,  the 
sulphur  burner  must  be  shortened  as  the  cask  fills  up. 

Must  treated  in  this  manner  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time  if 
well  clarified,  and  the  cask  is  well  sulphured  at  each  racking,  or 
a  portion  sulphured  when  it  commences  to  ferment. 

If  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  must  a  short  time,  a  portion 
only,  say  one-third,  need  be  sulphured.  In  that  case  there  will 
be  less  odor  of  sulphur,  and  it  will  soon  pass  away. 

Clarification  and  Care  of  Uiiferniented  Must.— It  should  be 
kept  in  good,  strong  casks,  well  hooped  and  well  bunged,  in 
closed  cellars  of  a  constant  temperature.  The  casks  should  be 
filled  every  few  days  with  sulphured  must;  and  they  should  be 
frequently  racked  to  free  them  from  ferments.  They  should  not 
be  exposed  to  the  air  when  racking,  and  should  be  racked  into 
well  sulphured  casks.  Boireau  says  that  the  must  may  be  com- 
pletely clarified  before  sulphuring,  by  introducing  about  one  ounce 
of  tannin  per  100  gallons  of  must,  and  pouring  into  the  casks 
before  completely  filling  about  a  quart  of  water  in  which  has 
been  dissolved  about  four  tablets  of  gelatine,  and  which  has 
become  cold. 

A  Sulphur  Flavor  is  sometimes  communicated  to  must  treated 
as  above,  and  is  also  sometimes  acquired  by  wines  which  are  put 
into  casks  which  have  been  sulphured  for  some  time,  without  first 
washing  them,  and  also  by  allowing  the  debris  of  the  sulphur 
match  to  fall  into  the  cask;  this  flavor  is  apt  to  pass  away  with 
time  it  not  very  pronounced,  or  in  that  case  may  be  removed  by 


74  SULPHURING. 

racking  into  a  clean  cask.  But  if  the  wine  has  a  very  decided  sul- 
phur flavor,  it  must  be  disinfected  by  wood  charcoal.  Several  large 
piecesf  of  coal  well  cleaned  and  well  dried  are  introduced  into 
the  cask  and  soaked  in  the  wine,  from  which  they  can  be  with- 
drawn by  strings  attached  before  putting  them  in  the  cask.  Forty- 
eight  hours  are  generally  sufficient  to  remove  the  flavor;  but  if 
necessary,  the  process  may  be  repeated,  by  changing  the  charcoal. 
In  operating  on  white  wines,  a  large  amount  of  charcoal  may  be 
used  without  inconvenience,  but  in  the  case  of  red  wine,  there 
seems  to  be  some  danger  of  depriving  it  of  a  portion  of  its  color. 
Mr.  Maumeiie  says,  however,  that  the  charcoal  is  liable  to  deprive 
the  wine  of  the  carbonic  acid  dissolved  in  it,  it  being  an  absorb- 
ent of  that  gas,  dnd  thereby  rendering  the  wine  more  subject  to 
the  action  of  oxygen. 

Other  Substances  have  been  recommended  to  Prevent 
Fermentation  in  a  Must,  but  notwithstanding  the  disagreeable 
flavor  which  is  communicated  by  an  excessive  use  of  sulphur,  no 
other  agent  has  been  found  which  is  as  satisfactory,  on  the  whole. 

By  Burning  Alcohol  in  the  Cask,  the  oxygen  may  be 
removed,  but  the  ferments  are  not  destroyed.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  an  explosion.  Therefore,  the  spirit  must  not  be 
poured  into  the  cask  and  lighted,  but  must  be  placed  in  a  small 
vessel  and  lowered  in  through  the  bung,  as  in  the  case  of  sul- 
phuring. 

The  Concentrated  Aqueous  Solution  of  Sulphurous  Acid 

has  been  recommended,  but  Maumene  says  that  not  only  is  its 
preservation  very  difficult,  but  its  management  is  more  difficult 
than  the  sulphur  match,  and  the  chances  of  its  being  mixed  with 
dangerous  substances  are  considerable ;  and  therefore  no  one 
should  think  of  using  it. 

The  Bisulphite  of  Lime  has  been  used  to  prevent  fermentation 
in  wine  and  cider,  but  it  does  not  always  give  satisfactory  results, 
and  the  salt  is  difficult  to  keep,  and  the  use  for  wine,  at  least,  has 
generally  been  abandoned.  In  the  experiments  of  Proust,  given 

t  Mac-hard  says  about  125  grammes  to  a  tonneau,  or  4  or  5  ounces  to  5250  gallons  of  wine. 


SULPHURING.  75 

by  Maumenfe,  the  smallest  quantity  used  was  15  grammes  to  100 
kilogrammes  of  must,  or  about  one-half  ounce  to  23  gallons. 

Salicylic  Acid  has  been  much  recommended  within  the  past 
few  years,  but  like  everything  else,  it  affects  the  flavor,  if  suffi- 
cient is  used  to  prevent  fermentation.  The  quantity  necessary 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  alcohol,  ferments, etc.,  contained  in 
the  wine.  Prof.  Neubauer,  quoted  by  H.  Endemann  in  American 
Chemist,  says  that  wine  which  is  yet  fermenting  should  not  receive 
any  salicylic  acid,  since  too  large  quantities  of  the  substance  are 
required  for  effective  use,  but  that  it  may  be  used  in  wine  when 
made  to  prevent  after-fermentation;  that  it  will  prevent  disease, 
but  will  not  cure  wine  when  diseased .  Though  infallible  rules  as  to 
quantity  cannot  be  given,  experiments  should  be  made  with  from 
.02  to  .06  gramme  per  litre,  or  say  from  1.165  to  3.5  grains  per 
gallon.  A  solution  of  2  grammes  (30.864  grains)  of  salicylic 
acid  to  100  c.  c.  (3.38  fluid  ounces)  of  alcohol  of  80°  is  employed; 
1  c.  c  =  0.02  grammes;  3  c.  c.  =0.06  grammes;  61.44  minims  or 
a  little  more  than  one  fluidram  =  1.165  grains,  and  3.7  fluidrams^= 
3.5  grains.  Salicylic  acid  being  but  sparingly  soluble  in  water, 
it  is  preferable  to  dissolve  in  strong  alcohol,  and  these  are  con- 
venient proportions. 

It  is  said  that  100  grammes  (3?  Ap.  ounces)  will  stop  the  fer- 
mentation of  1000  litres  (about  264  gals.)  of  must,  when  nearly 
completed;  800  grammas  are  necessary  when  in  active  fermenta- 
tion; and  400  will  preserve  the  wine  when  made. 

But  now  the  intelligence  comes  that  salicylic  acid  has  an 
injurious  effect  upon  the  teeth  and  bones,  it  having  an  affinity 
for  calcareous  salts  (Boston  Journal  of  Chemistry,  Vol.  XI,  143), 
and  the  French  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  on  the 
report  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Hygiene,  recommends  that 
the  sale  of  articles  of  food  adulterated  with  it  be  prohibited  as 
injurious  to  the  public  health.  (Ib.  Vol.  XV.,  45.) 


76  AGING. 


CHAPTER   X. 

AGING— EFFECTS  OF  VARIOUS  INFLUENCES. 

General  Considerations. — Wines,  from  the  time  of  their  first 
fermentation  down  to  the  time  of  their  degeneration  and  decay, 
are  constantly  undergoing  change.  Until  they  have  acquired  a 
certain  age,  varying  in  each  case  with  the  quality  and  nature  of 
the  liquid,  they  do  not  possess  those  qualities  which  make  them 
an  agreeable,  healthful  beverage.  The  care  to  be  bestowed  upon 
them  in  their  general  treatment  not  only  includes  what  is  neces- 
sary for  their  preservation,  but  also  what  is  necessary  to  age  them 
by  developing  in  them  all  the  good  qualities  of  which  they  are 
susceptible,  and  the  means  of  preventing  and  remedying  their 
defects  and  diseases. 

A  New  Wine,  when  first  fermented,  is  quite  different  from 
one  even  a  few  months  old,  in  respect  to  color,  flavor,  arid  aroma. 
But  the  quality  which  it  may  acquire  depends  upon  the  propor- 
tion of  different  substances  which  it  contains.  Some  wines,  poor 
in  alcohol  and  deficient  in  tannin,  will  develop  their  best  qualities 
and  begin  to  degenerate  very  soon  after  fermentation.  Such 
should  be  consumed  as  soon  as  their  insensible  fermentation  is 
completed;  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  age  them;  while  those  which 
are  stout,  firm  and  full-bodied  must  be  kept  several  years  to  be 
completely  developed. 

The  Bouquet  and  Distinctive  Flavor  of  a  wine,  according  to 
Mr.  Boireau,  generally,  are  not  perfectly  developed  until  defeca- 
tion is  complete — that  i£  to  say,  until,  after  several  months'  repose 
under  proper  conditions,  they  have  ceased  to  deposit  insoluble 
matters,  and  no  longer  mineral  and  vegetable  salts,  ferments, 
and  coloring  matter  are  precipitated. 

Old  Wine,  then,  differs  from  a  new  wine  of  the  same  origin  by 
its  color,  its  aroma,  and  flavor,  and  the  difference  is  due  to  several 
causes. 


AGING.  77 

The  Color  of  old  red  wine  is  less  dark  on  account  of  the 
precipitation  of  a  part  of  the  coloring  matter,  which,  rendered 
insoluble  by  the  formation  of  different  combinations,  has  been 
carried  down  with  the  lees.  The  red  color  becomes  tawny  in 

time. 

Til  ft  Aroma  of  old  wine  is  more  agreeable,  being  largely  due 
to  ethers  which  are  formed  by  a  combination  of  the  alcohol  with 
the  acids,  and  because  the  other  aromatic  principles  are  no  longer 
masked  by  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  disengaged  when  the  wine 
has  been  recently  fermented. 

The  Difference  in  Flavor  is  due  to  several  causes,  such  as  the 
loss  of  a  great  part  of  the  mineral  and  vegetable  salts,  which 
have  become  insoluble  by  combination  with  the  tarfcnric,  acetic, 
and'  malic  acid,  and  their  consequent  precipitation,  and  also  to 
the  deposit  of  a  portion  of  the  coloring  matter. 

So  that  when  a  wine  is  old,  having  been  well  cared  for,  it  con- 
tains less  coloring  matter,  vegetable  and  mineral  salts,  acids  free 
and  combined,  tannin,  ferments,  mucilage,  alcohol,  etc.,  than 
when  first  fermented. 

Influences  which  Develop,  also  Destroy. — Pellicot,  quoting 
-Bechamp,  says  that  a  wine  ages  and  improves  under  influences 
analogous  to  those  which  spoil  it,  and  he,  himself,  carries  the 
idea  a  little  farther,  and  adds,  that  the  influence  which  produces 
the  amelioration  in  a  wine — which  ages  it— will,  after  having 
brought  about  the  improvement,  cause  it  to  deteriorate,  unless  its 
action  is  opportunely  suspended. 

It  must  also  be  understood  that  certain  influences  which  will 
greatly  improve  a  strong,  alcoholic,  or  a  sweet  wine,  might  in  a 
short  time  entirely  ruin  a  weaker  one,  or  a  dry  wine. 

Influence  of  the  Air. — When  a  wine  of  ordinary  strength,  a 
table  wine,  comes  into  immediate  contact  with  the  air,  a  portion 
of  its  alcohol  evaporates,  it  loses  its  bouquet  and  flavor,  and  if 
long  exposed,  a  whitish  scum  is  formed  on  its  surface,  called 
flower*.  These  have  already  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  fer- 
mentation as  micuderma  vim  and  micoderma  aceti.  A  disagreeable 


78  AGING. 

flavor  is  communicated  to  the  wine  which  the  French  call  gout 
d'  event,  and  the  wine  is  said  to  be  evente,  or  flat;  and  it  becomes 
turbid,  and  loses  its  transparency.  Sometimes  when  the  wine 
still  contains  sugar  the  flowers  are  not  formed,  but  a  second  alco- 
holic fermentation  sets  in,  and  it  works.  If  the  wine  is  not 
immediately  freed  from  contact  with  the  air,  it  acidifies,  becomes 
pricked,  and  by  degrees  turns  to  vinegar.  (See  Acetic  Fermenta- 
tion.) And  if  still  longer  exposed,  putrid  fermentation  sets  in. 

Sweet  wines,  whose  alcoholic  strength  exceeds  16  per  cent., 
and  which  contain  a  good  deal  of  sugar,  are  not  so  liable  to  be 
injured  by  the  influence  of  the  air.  Not  only  does  their  high 
degree  of  spirit  interfere  with  acetic  and  putrid  fermentation, 
but  an  insensible  alcoholic  fermentation  sometimes  takes  place, 
and  the  supply  of  alcohol  is  kept  up.  But  in  time,  as  the  sugar 
disappears,  the  alcohol  becomes  enfeebled  by  evaporation,  and 
then  acetic  fermentation  sets  in,  as  in  the  weaker  wines. 

In  the  sherry  countries  it  is  considered  necessary  that  the  wine 
should  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  and  therefore  the  casks 
are  not  kept  full,  and  flowers  are  considered  a  good  sign.  In  a 
few  instances,  where  the  wines  are  strong  enough  to  bear  it,  aging 
may  be  hastened  by  some  exposure  to  the  air,  but  great  care  must 
be  taken  that  they  are  not  left  too  long  under  its  influence,  or 
disorganization  may  ensue.  It  must,  however,  be  laid  down  as 
an  almost  universal  rule,  that  the  casks  must  be  kept  full  and 
well  bunged.  (See  Ulling.) 

Yariations  of  Temperature  affect  wines  like  other  liquids  by 
contraction  and  expansion.  When  a  full  cask  is  put  in  a  cold 
place,  the  wine  contracts  and  leaves  a  vacant  space;  then  it  must 
be  filled  up  or  the  wine  drawn  into  a  smaller  cask.  If  the  tem- 
perature of  the  wine  in  a  full  cask  is  raised,  the  liquid  expands, 
and  is  apt  to  cause  leaks;  the  sediment  is  liable  to  rise  and  give 
the  wine  a  flavor  of  the  lees. 

Influence  of  Heat.— Guyot  says  that  the  higher  the  degree 
of  heat  to  which  wines  are  exposed,  the  greater  their  inter- 
nal activity.  Those  subjected  to  15,  20,  30  degrees,  Celsius, 
(59J,  68°,  86°  F.),  sooner  arrive  at  maturity,  if  young,  at  old 


AGING.  79 

• 

age,  if  ripe,  and  at  decrepitude,  if  old,  than  they  would  at  a 
temperature  of  10°  C.  (50°F.)  From  which  the  conclusion  is 
drawn,  that  wines  which  have  nearly  or  quite  reached  their 
maturity  must  be  protected  from  heat,  or  at  least  from  that  of  an 
elevated  temperature,  and  that  old  wines  should  be  kept  in  as  cool 
a  place  as  possible. 

Aging  by  Heat. — On  the  other  hand,  if  we  wish  to  hasten  the 
maturity  of  our  wines,  we  can  do  so  by  keeping  them  in  a  warm 
place  rather  than  in  a  cool  cellar.  The  younger  the  wines,  and 
the  more  sugar  and  alcohol  they  contain,  the  more  they  will  gain, 
and  the  less  risk  will  they  run  if  subjected  to  a  temperature  of 
from  60°  to  86°  F.  For  example,  sweet  wines  which  are  only  ripe 
at  thirty  or  forty  years  will  mature  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  at 
68°  of  heat,  and  in  five  or  ten  years,  at  86°;  a  Bordeaux  or  a  Her- 
mitage wine  which  at  50°  would  be  made  in  eight  or  ten  years, 
would  certainly  be  made  in  four  or  five  years  at  from  59°  to  68°, 
and  in  two  or  three  years  at  77°  or  86°  of  heat.  He  says  that  a 
temperature  between  40°  and  90°  C.  (104°  and  194°  F.)  will  dis- 
organize many  kinds  of  wine,  particularly  red  wines  and  those 
which  have  remained  long  in  the  fermenting  vat,  though  it  will 
not  have  that  effect  upon  all  wines. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  inhabitants  of  many  southern  coun- 
tries are  accustomed  to  expose  their  wines  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  heat  to  hasten  their  maturity,  and  different  methods  are 
employed  for  the  purpose,  and  it  is  important  to  know  what 
kind  of  wine  will  be  improved  and  what  injured  by  the  practice. 
On  this  subject  Boireau  says,  that  after  many  experiments,  he  can 
affirm  that  if  the  heat  exceeds  30°  C.  (86°  F.),  it  is  injurious  to 
the  grand  mellow  wines  of  the  Gironde;  also  to  wines  of  a  deli- 
cate bouquet  whose  alcoholic  strength  does  not  exceed  12  per  cent. 
Fine  wines  which  possess  both  an  aromatic  taste  and  bouquet,  a 
fruity  flavor,  and  a  pronounced  mellowness,  by  heat  take  on  a 
certain  tawny  flavor  of  worn  out  wine;  but  they  become  dry,  lose 
their  mellowness,  and  coolness,  and  acquire  a  cooked  flavor,  which 
changes  their  nature  and  gives  them  an  analogy  with  the  wines 
of  the  south  of  France.  This  taste  covers  their  natural  flavor 
and  renders  them  common . 


80  AGING. 

« 
He  goes  on  to  say  that  wines  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat  in 

direct  contact  with  the  air,  lose  by  evaporation  a  part  of  their 
alcohol;  the  oxygen  deprives  them  of  a  part  of  their  color,  and 
if  the  influence  is  prolonged,  they  become  weak  and  greatly 
deteriorated.  Exposed  to  heat  in  imperfectly  closed  vessels,  they 
deposit,  and  take  the  tawny  flavor  (gout  de  rancio)  if  their  alco- 
holic strength  exceeds  16  per  cent.;  but  if  feeble  in  spirit,  and 
they  remain  long  in  this  condition,  the  oxygen  transforms  a  part 
of  their  alcohol  into  vinegar.  In  receptacles  kept  full  and  well 
stopped,  they  undergo  but  few  constitutional  changes,  if  the 
heat  does  not  exceed  158°  F.;  but,  nevertheless,  a  small  part  of 
their  coloring  matter  is  precipitated,  and  their  taste  is  sensibly 
changed.  A  flavor  of  cooked  wine  is  found,  and  a  slight  odor 
of  the  lees,  no  matter  how  quick  the  heating. 

Whatever  the  kind  of  wine  operated  upon,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  carry  the  heat  too  high,  for  it  will  decompose  and  pre- 
cipitate certain  principles  in  dissolution  in  the  wine,  and  change 
its  natural  flavor.  After  cooling,  voluminous  deposits  will  be 
found,  and  the  cooking  will  give  the  wine  a  disagreeable  flavor 
and  an  odor  of  the  residue  of  a  still.  The  extreme  limits  of  from 
113°  to  158J  F.  should  not  be  exceeded,  and  the  greater  the  heat 
the  shorter  should  be  the  exposure  to  it. 

Generally  speaking,  the  wines  which  gain  the  most  by  heating, 
either  by  artificial  means  or  by  leaving  them  in  casks  well  bunged, 
but  in  ullage,  in  warm  store  rooms,  are  strongly  fortified  liqueur 
wines.  And  in  order  that  they  be  not  injured  under  those  con- 
ditions, they  should  contain  at  least  18  per  cent,  of  pure  alcohol. 
And  as  they  will  gradually  lose  a  little  of  their  spirit  by  evapora- 
tion, their  alcoholic  strength  should  be  taken  from  time  to  time, 
and  they  should  be  kept  up  to  the  indicated  degree  by  fortifying. 

Preserving  Wine  by  Heat.  —Aside  from  the  question  of 
aging  wine  by  the  effect  of  heat,  Pasteur  has  attempted  to  show 
that  wines  can  be  kept  without  change,  if  the  temperature  is 
raised  for  a  short  time  to  130°  or  140°  F.  This  is  on  the  theory 
that  wines  become  flat,  pricked,  turned,  or  rotten,  owing  to 
secondary  fermentations,  and  that  each  change  is  due  to  the 


AGING.  81 

action  of  a  particular  ferment,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  fer- 
mentation; and  that  this  degree  of  heat  destroys  the  action  of 
these  ferments — in  fact,  kills  them.  It  is  owing  to  the  presence 
of  the  alcohol,  that  they  are  destroyed  by  this  degree  of  heat, 
for  a  must  which  has  been  raised  to.  the  boiling  point  still  fer- 
ments according  to  the  experience  of  Boireau  and  of  Pellicot. 
The  first  named  gives  the  results  of  his  experiments  in  heating 
wines  according  to  Pasteur's  plan.  The  wine  was  in  bottles,  and 
the  heat  was  gradually  raised  to  52°  C.  (125.0°  F.)  In  comparing 
the  wines  treated  with  unheated  wines  kept  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, he  found  that  the  wine  which  had  been  heated  could 
support  contact  with  the  air  with  less  injury  than  -the  unheated, 
but  that  nevertheless  it  became  flat,  covered  with  flowers,  and 
acidified  even  in  closed  vessels  which  were-  not  completely  full; 
also  that  fine  wines  generally  are  injured  by  the  process.  The 
wines  experimented  upon  had  from  10  to  10-}  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
It  is  a  costly  process  to  subject  wine  to  a  high  artificial  heat, 
and  owing  to  the  doubt  which  yet  seems  to  attend  the  matter, 
but  few  are  likely  to  go  to  the  expense. 

Influence  of  Cold. — Most  authors  have  something  to  say  on 
the  subject  of  congealed  wines,  and  undoubtedly  the  liquid  ma}r 
be  concentrated  by  freezing  a  portion  of  the  water,  and  drawing 
off  the  remaining  liquid.  Those  living  in  cold  countries  can 
try  the  experiment,  but  it  will  certainly  not  be  practiced  in  Cali- 
fornia . 

Mr.  Boireau  says  that  the  liquid  remaining  acquires  a  flavor 
similar  to  that  possessed  by  wines  which  have  been  heated;  that 
fine  wines  of  a  delicate  bouquet  and  flavor  acquire  a  commoner 
flavor  than  those  in  their  normal  state. 

Treatment  of  Frozen  Wines. — It  may  not  be  amiss  to  indi- 
cate what  treatment  a  wine  should  receive  in  case  it  has  been 
frozen  and  has  thawed  again.  It  becomes  turbid,  loses  part  of 
its  color,  and  several  matters  are  precipitated,  or  remain  in  sus- 
pension, and  it  is  liable  to  ferment  when  the  temperature  rises. 
The  last  named  author  says  that  it  should  be  put  in  a  place  of 
even  temperature,  and  if  necessary,  it  should  Toe  fined;  in  which 


82  AGING. 

case  it  should  be  fortified  with  a  strong  wine  of  the  same  nature, 
or  a  small  amount  of  brandy. 

Influence  of  Light. — Guyot  says  that  the  direct  light  of  the 
sun  causes  wine  to  work,  especially  red  wine,  and  that  it  has  an 
injurious  effect  upon  its  composition  and  color;  and  the  color- 
ing matter  being  decomposed,  or  modified,  acts  upon  the  other 
elements  and  makes  the  wine  turn.  And  hence  the  wisdom  of 
putting  wine  in  colored  bottles.  It  is  only  the  direct  light  of 
the  sun,  however,  that  is  to  be  avoided,  for  a  dim  light,  light 
reflected  or  polarized,  and  moonlight  and  artificial  light  are  not 
sufficiently  powerful  to  produce  a  sensible  effect. 

Aging  by   Sunlight.— Exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  has 

been  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  aging  wine,  but  Boireau  says 
that  it  is  not  favorable  to  all,  and  is  least  suited  to  those  whose 
alcoholic  strength  does  not  exceed  15  per  cent.  He  says  that  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  falling  upon  bottled  wines  will  promptly 
precipitate  the  coloring  matter,  and  that  the  effect  is  greater 
where  the  bottles  are  not  completely  filled  and  corked  with  the 
needle.  If  the  bottles  are  wrapped  in  paper,  or  if  the  wine  is  in 
casks,  the  aging  is  less  rapid.  He  shows  by  experiment  that 
insolation  is  advantageous  only  to  wines  of  more  than  15  per 
cent,  of  alcohol,  to  sweet  wines,  and  wines  fortified  up  to  18°, 
intended  to  be  treated  as  the  wines  of  Madeira,  i.e., baked.  But 
wines  of  about  10  per  cent,  of  spirit  will  not  endure  this  method 
of  aging  without  more  or  less  deterioration  by  souring. 

Effect  of  the  Motion  of  Voyages.— Wines  age  more  rapidly 
if  kept  in  motion,  and  hence,  in  part,  the  good  effect  of  a  long 
voyage.  Strong,  sweet  wines,  are  undoubtedly  greatly  improved 
by  the  motion  consequent  on  transportation,  as  well  as  by  the 
heat,  but  constant  agitation  will  cause  weak  ones  to  go  rapidly 
through  the  periods  of  their  existence,  and  degenerate. 

Wines  Suitable  for  Shipment.— And  Dr.  Guyot  adds  that  a 
wine  which  does  not  contain  12  per  cent,  of  alcohol  and  6  per 
cent,  of  sugar,  crosses  the  equator  with  great  difficulty,  even  in 
bottles.  In  wood*  it  should  be  young  and  contain  20  per  cent. 


AGING.  83 

of  spirit,  or  sufficient  sugar  to  make  up  that  amount.  For  a 
voyage  in  Europe,  or  to  America  direct,  he  says  that  the  wines  of 
Bordeaux,  Burgundy,  and  of  Champagne,  of  10  to  12  per  cent, 
of  spirit  and  2  to  4  per  cent,  of  sugar,  behave  well  if  young  or  in 
bottles. 

Mr.  Boireau,  however,  says  that  wines  proper  for  exportation, 
and  which  will  keep  in  tropical  climates,  where  good  cellars  and 
good  care  are  generally  wanting,  are  those  which  possess  naturally 
or  by  addition  a  high  alcoholic  title,  a  solid,  but  bright  and  hand- 
some color,  a  clean  taste,  and  perfect  limpidity.  Sweet,  fortified 
wines  best  fulfil  these  conditions.  He  says  that  liqueur  wines, 
for  shipping  to  the  tropics,  should  have  at  least  18  per  cent,  of 
pure  alcohol;  below  that  they  ferment,  their  saccharine  matter 
is  transformed  into  alcohol,  their  strength  diminishes,  and  they 
end  by  becoming  pricked.  Dry  wines,  to  be  sent  to  those  coun- 
tries, should  have  the  same  strength,  unless  the  casks  are  kept 
full.  He  adds,  however,  that  these  remarks  only  apply  to  those 
wines  which  on  their  arrival  do  not  receive  the  usual  care,  such 
as  filling  the  casks,  clarifying  and  racking,  and  are  not  kept  in 
suitable  places;  and  that  a  good  firm  wine  of  the  south  of  France, 
which  has  naturally  at  least  12  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  can  be  shipped 
without  fortifying. 

The  motion  and  the  high  temperature  to  which  wines  are  sub- 
jected in  transportation  also  cause  a  loss  of  color  by  precipitation, 
particularly  if  they  lack  tannin.  Wines  which  are  sufficiently 
strong  in  alcohol,  but  from  lack  of  tannin  want  firmness  and 
body,  are  liable  to  acidify.  Therefore,  wines  too  poor  in  tannin 
should  not  be  shipped  abroad.  The  greater  part  of  the  wines  of 
the  Giroiide  having  plenty  of  tannin,  can  be  safely  shipped  if 
fortified  to  11  per  cent.,  and  the  grand  wines  of  less  alcohol  are 
safe  if  shipped  in  bottles. 

In  Shipping  a  New  Wine,  whose  sensible  fermentation  is 
finished,  the  motion  often  causes  a  new  disengagement  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  sometimes  in  sufficient  force  to  burst  out  a  head  of  the 
cask,  unless  vented.  Of  course,  such  wine  should  not  be  shipped, 
except  under  conditions  which  admit  of  careful  supervision.  If 


84  AGING. 

transported  short  distances,  a  small  gimlet  hole  should  be  kept 
open  near  the  bung,  in  which  three  or  four  straws  may  be  placed 
with  the  heads  or  spikes  on,  or  a  small  tin  tube  with  a  button  at 
the  top  may  be  placed  in  the  hole  and  bent  inside  the  stave,  hav- 
ing sufficient  play  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape.  Must  is  shipped 
in  the  same  way. 

Other  Motion,  such  as  Jarring  and  Trembling,  produced  by 
loud  noises  and  by  passing  teams  and  by  factories,  act  injuriously 
upon  wines,  causing  them  to  behave  badly  and  to  deteriorate. 
Guyot  also  says  what  may  be  by  some  deemed  fanciful,  that 
musical  sounds  hasten  the  development  of  wine;  and  that  most 
old  wines  will  turn  in  a  cellar  transformed  into  a  music  hall. 

Filling  is  also  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  aging  wine,  pro- 
ducing results  somewhat  similar  to  the  effects  of  time.  But  it 
should  be  performed  with  the  care  and  subject  to  the  conditions 
mentioned  in  the  proper  place.  (See  Fining.) 

Aging  Generally. — Before  subjecting  a  wine  to  any  of  the 
processes  for  artificial  aging,  care  should  be  taken,  says  Mr.  Boi- 
reau,  to  precipitate  the  matters  held  in  suspension,  and  to  render 
it  perfectly  limpid. 

Grand  wines,  however,  should  never  be  subjected  to  the  treat- 
ment, for  if  a  premature  development  of  bouquet  is  obtained,  it 
is  at  the  expense  of  that  precious  quality,  mellowness.  For 
to-day,  gourmets  and  consumers  of  refined  taste  do  not  select, 
wines  which  have  a  bouquet,  if  they  are  also  dry  and  harsh  to 
the  palate;  such  wines  are  only  too  plenty.  They  esteem  above 
all  those  wines  which  in  aging  have  kept  their  fruity  flavor,  their 
velvety  smoothness,  that  unctuosity  which  can  only  be  preserved 
in  keeping  them  in  a  place  having  a  regular  temperature  (ave- 
aging  60°),  in  well  closed  receptacles,  by  bringing  about  the  defe- 
cation of  their  lees  and  the  deposit  of  their  ferments  by  oppor- 
tune rackings  without  contact  with  the  air,  and  by  fining  them 
as  little  as  possible. 

If,  for  want  of  care  or  suitable  places,  the  wines  work,  enter 
into  fermentation,  their  mellowness  diminishes,  and  when  neg- 
lected they  become  dry. 


AGING.  85 

The  Wines  which  Gain  the  Most  by  the  Aging  Processes 

mentioned,  are:  1st,  Wines  excessively' rough  and  overcharged 
with  color;  2d,  fortified  wines,  whose  minimum  degree  of  alcohol 
is  18- per  cent.;  3d,  sweet  wines  fortified  to  18  or  20  per  cent. 

Those  which  remain  too  harsh  should  be  fined  with  a  strong 
dose  of  gelatine;  continued  agitation  after  this  will  make  them 
smoother. 

Fortified  wines,  dry  or  sweet,  age  very  quickly,  if  subjected  to 
agitation  and  afterwards  to  insolation,  if  followed  by  a  complete 
clarification;  but  it  is  important  to  fortify  them  anew,  for  the 
alcohol  evaporates,  and  below  15  per  cent,  they  would  sour 
iriHtead  of  acquiring  bouquet.  It  is  also  sometimes  necessary  to 
add  sugar  to  sweet  wines  so  treated. 


86  GENERAL  TREATMENT. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

GENERAL    TREATMENT CELLARS. 

Unfortified,  or  Table  Wines. — After  what  has  been  said  in 
the  last  chapter  of  the  different  effects  produced  by  the  various 
influences  to  which  wine  may  be  subjected,  it  remains  to  point 
out  the  proper  care  and  treatment  to  be  bestowed  upon  unfortified 
table  wines,  whose  alcoholic  strength  does  not  exceed  15  per  ceut. 
The  three  essential  conditions  indicated  by  Mr.  Boireau  are: 

1.  They  should  be  protected  from  the  contact  of  the  air. 

2.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  uniform  temperature. 

3.  They   should    be   freed    from   their   lees,    ferments,    and 
deposits;  they  must  become  perfectly  clear,  and  their  degenera- 
tion be  prevented. 

It  is  very  important  to  taste  them,  and  keep  close  watch  over 
them  by  frequent  visiting,  in  order  to  prevent  secondary  fer- 
mentations and  their  consequent  injurious  results,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  mellow  wines,  which  thereby  transform  into  alcohol 
the  mucilages  and  pectines  which  they  contain,  and  lose  their 
fruity  flavor.  (See  Red  Wine,  White  Wine,  etc.) 

Deposits,  Lees,  etc. — It  is  important  that  they  should  be  freed 
from  ferments  and  deposits,  for  muddy,  troubled  wines  are  pre- 
disposed to  secondary  fermentations,  alcoholic  or  acetic;  they 
readily  contract  the  bad  taste  of  the  lees,  bitterness,  etc.  In  all 
wines,  the  work  of  clearing  is  constantly  going  on;  different 
matters,  among  others,  coloring  matter,  several  mineral  and 
vegetable  salts,  etc.,  which  were  dissolved  in  the  wine,  become 
insoluble,  and  these  with  a  portion  of  the  tannin  are  precipitated 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  or  remain  in  suspension.  It  is  these 
matters  with  the  ferments  which  constitute  the  lees.  Wines  de- 
posit more  or  less,  according  to  their  nature  and  the  care  bestowed 
in  their  making.  The  most  voluminous  deposits  take  place  dur- 
ing the  first  year,  and  they  diminish  in  volume  and  consistency 


GENERAL  TREATMENT.  87 

at  each  racking,  if  properly  cared  for.  When  they  have  become 
well  settled  and  bright,  and  have  achieved  their  complete  devel- 
opment, the  deposit  is  almost  nothing.  But  it  increases  anew 
when  the  wine  declines  and  begins  to  degenerate. 

To  Prevent  this  Degeneration,  and  to  keep  fully  developed 
wines,  they  must  be  put  into  bottles.  (See  Wine  in  Bottles.) 

CELLARS. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  chapter  naturally 
leads  us  to  the  subject  of  the  proper  place  for  storing  wine 
after  it  has  completed  its  active  fermentation.  Cellars  proper 
are  constructed  entirely  under  ground,  and  should  have  vaulted 
roofs  of  masonry.  If  the  cellar  is  under  a  building,  the  arch 
can  safely  come  within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  level  of  the 
ground,  but  if  no  building  is  over  it  to  protect  it  from  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  it  should  be  four  or  five  feet  under  ground.  Many 
storehouses  for  wine  are  constructed  partly  above  and  partly 
below  ground,  and  others  again,  entirely  above.  Undoubtedly 
those  below  ground  are  the  best  adapted  for  keeping  wines  which 
have  arrived  at  maturity,  and  for  those  of  little  alcoholic  strength, 
but  when  it  is  desired  to  rapidly  develop  and  age  an  immature 
wine,  it  can  be  sooner  accomplished  in  a  place  of  a  higher  tem- 
perature, and  there  also  can  a  strong  wine  be  safely  kept. 

Temperature. — Whatever  the  degree  of  temperature,  all  agree 
that  it  should  be  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible;  and  to  insure 
this,  the  cellar  should  face  the  north  or  east  when  practicable. 
The  outer  door  should  not  open  directly  into  the  cellar  or  store- 
house, but  it  is  better  to  have  the  entrance  through  an  out- 
building, or  at  least  with  an  outer  and  an  inner  door,  at  a  con- 
siderable distance.  If  the  wine-house  is  above  ground,  its  walls 
should  be  of  sufficient  thickness  and  of  suitable  material  to  pre- 
vent changes  of  temperature,  and  it  should  have  a  loft  or  room 
above,  so  that  the  wine  may  be  protected  from  the  effects  of  the 
rays  of  the  sun  falling  upon  the  roof;  and  it  may  also  be  shaded 
by  trees.  Some  of  the  older  writers  say  that  the  proper  tempera- 
ture for  a  cellar  is  50  or  52  F.,  but  so  low  a  degree  can  only  be 


88  GENERAL  TREATMENT 

obtained  in  a  well  constructed  cellar  wholly  under  ground,  and 
deep,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  obtained  in  this  State.  Boireau, 
however,  says  that  in  the  Gironde  the  average  temperature  of 
the  cellars  is  from  15°  to  17°  C.,dr  59°  to  62£0  F.,  arid  if  a  person 
can  maintain  the  temperature  of  his  cellar  or  storehouse  in  this 
State  uniformly  at  60°  he  will  do  well. 

Dampness. — Formerly,  when  wooden  hoops  for  casks  were 
used,  it  was  necessary  to  guard  against  dampness ,  for  they  soon 
rotted,  and  required  to  be  frequently  renewed;  but  now  with  the 
use  of  iron  in  place  of  wood,  less  care  is  necessary  in  that  respect. 
It  is  best,  however,  that  they  should  be  sufficiently  dry  that  mould 
will  not  form  on  the  cask,  for  a  bad  taste  may  thereby  be  com- 
municated to  the  wine.  Therefore,  cellars  should  not  be  con- 
structed in  very  damp  places,  should  have  the  soil  of  the  floor 
well  compacted,  should  be  well  drained,  and  well  cemented,  and 
if  necessary,  the  floor  may  be  covered  with  a  bed  a  foot  deep 
composed  of  a  mixture  of  lime,  sand,  and  gravel,  or  cinders,  or  the 
like,  well  beaten  down,  and  the  whole  covered  with  dry  sand. 
Nothing  should  be  left  in  the  cellar  which  naturally  gathers 
moisture.  All  mould  should  be  frequently  removed,  and  the 
sand  removed  and  replaced  with  dry  sand  when  necessary. 
Sawdust  should  not  be  used  on  the  floor.  In  San  Francisco,  the 
best  cellars  have  a  good  asphaltum  floor,  and  I  know  of  nothing 
better  after  the  odor  has  passed  away. 

Ventilation  is  necessary  at  times  to  prevent  too  much  damp- 
ness, and  also  to  change  the  air  which  may  become  foul.  Under- 
ground cellars  can  be  ventilated  by  means  of  a  large  tube,  such  as 
is  used  on  shipboard,  provided  with  a  broad  opening  at  the  top 
which  can  be  turned  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  conducting  the 
air  into  the  cellar.  Storehouses  may  have  small,  movable  win- 
dows. In  order  to  keep  down  the  temperature,  the  proper  time 
to  ventilate  is  during  the  coolest  part  of  the  night  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  this  State. 

Evaporation  of  the  Wine,  however,  must  be  guarded  against, 
which  may  vary  from  3  to  10  per  cent,  per  annum,  according  to 
whether  the  place  of  storage  is  open  or  closed.  In  France  the 


GENERAL  TREATMENT  89 

government  makes  an  allowance  in  favor  of  the  wholesale  mer- 
chant of  8  per  cent.,  for  loss.  And  Boireau  says  that  in  dry 
storehouses  where  the  air  is  continually  renewed  by  ventilation, 
the  loss  equals  the  allowed  per  cent. ,  and  even  exceeds  it,  particu- 
larly if  the  casks  are  weak  and  poor,  hooped  in  wood,  and  if  the 
hoops  are  not  driven  when  they  become  dry.  The  loss  may  then 
reach  10  per  cent.,  without  extraordinary  leakage.  By  guarding 
against  too  free  access  of  air  and  heat,  not  only  will  a  very  con- 
siderable loss  by  evaporation  be  avoided,  but  also  other  defects 
which  may  seriously  affect  the  wine,  such  as  acidity,  bitterness, 
too  great  dryness,  etc.  And  moreover,  in  poor  cellars  the  wines 
require  much  more  attention,  such  as  ulling,  racking,  and  fre- 
quent tasting,  to  protect  them  from  secondary  fermentations. 

Other  Precautions. — From  what  has  been  said  concerning 
the  influence  of  light,  motion,  etc.,  it  results  that  wine  cellars 
should  not  be  too  light,  nor  be  situated  under  wagon  roads  where 
vehicles  frequently  pass,  nor  near  blacksmiths'  shops,  or  other 
noisy  industries,  such  as  boiler  making,  etc.  The  vicinity  of 
sinks,  cesspools,  sewers,  and  the  sources  of  noisome  odors  gen- 
erally, should  be  avoided;  and  cellars  should  not  be  used  for 
storing  milk,  cheese,  vinegar,  or  any  matter  liable  to  ferment, 
such  as  fruit,  vegetables,  etc. ;  rror  should  new  wines  be  stored 
there  until  their  active  fermentation  has  ceased,  for  these  things 
may  either  communicate  a  bad  odor  and  taste  to  the  wine,  or 
set  up  in  it  secondary  fermentations. 

The  Casks  and  Tuns  should  be  supported  by  strong  timbers 
Fig.  15.  or  masonry,  and  should  be 

sufficiently  elevated,  so  that 
the  wine  may  be  easily  drawn 
off,  and  should  be  securely 
blocked.  Fig.  15  represents 
a  cask  supported  by  timbers 
resting  on  brick  work. 
Where  the  casks  are  arranged 
in  piles,  those  in  the  lower 
Cask  and  Support.  tier  should  have  four  blocks 


90  GENERAL  TREATMENT. 

or  chocks  each,  for  if  they  are  blocked  only  on  one  side,  they  are 
liable  to  be  disturbed,  and  the  outer  ones  should  also  have  a  large 
block  under  the  bulge.  Of  course,  the  outer  blocks  should  be  so 
adjusted  that  they  cannot  be  knocked  out  in  passing  by,  and  in 
rolling  barrels,  etc.  The  casks  of  the  upper  tiers  are  rolled  up 
on  skids,  or  inclined  planes,  and  are  then  rolled  along  over  scant- 
lings, laid  on  the  tier  below;  and  hoisting  tackle  is  often  of  use 
in  this  connection.  When,  however,  the  cellar  is  furnished  with 
sufficient  large  tuns,  the  piling  of  casks  may  be  dispensed  with. 


RACKING. 


CHAPTER  XH. 


BACKING. 

The  Backing  of  Wines,  or  drawing  off,  is  performed  for  the 
purpose  of  freeing  them  from  the  lees.  Some  of  the  older  writers 
recommend  that  wine  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  lees 
till  February  or  March,  but  the  better  practice  is  to  draw  it  off 
as  soon  as  it  has  cleared.  If  it  is  allowed  to  remain  long  upon 
the  lees,  variations  of  temperature  and  secondary  fermentations, 
storms,  etc.,  are  apt  to  cause  it  to  become  troubled  and  muddy, 
and  acquire  a  flavor  of  the  lees.  Boireau  says  that  he  has  con- 
stantly observed  that  wines  in  general,  and  especially  those  which 
have  been  fined,  if  racked  as  soon  as  well  cleared,  say  from  two 
weeks  to  a  month  after  fining,  according  to  the  kind  of  finings 
used,  place  of  storage,  nature  of  the  wine,  etc.,  are  generally 
more  limpid,  have  a  cleaner  taste,  and  are  much  less  liable  to 
work  than  if  left  011  the  finings  for  six  months,  from  one  racking 
to  another.  Wines  not  fined,  which  have  become  clear  naturally 
by  repose,  exhibit  the  same  results;  those  which  are  racked  as 
soon  as  bright,  are,  in  every  respect,  of  a  quality  superior  to 
those  which  have  been  left  upon  their  lees  from  one  equinox  to 
another. 

The  Conditions  Indispensable  to  Good  Backing  are  stated 
by  Mr.  Machard  as  follows: 

1.  To  perform  the  operation  when  the  weather  is  dry  and 
clear,  and  if  possible  during  a  north  wind,  for  it  is  only  during 
such  weather  that  the  precipitation  of  the  lees  can  be  really  com- 
plete. 

2.  To  avoid  the  operation  during  damp  and  rainy  weather, 
and  while  violent  winds  are  blowing  from* the  south. 

3.  Not  to  proceed  during  a  storm,  because  then  the  lighter 
parts  of  the  lees  rise  and  produce  fermentive  movements  which 
are  always  to  be  guarded  against. 


92  RACKING. 

4.  Never  to  draw  off  a  troubled  or  muddy  wine,  for  then  it 
must  be  racked  again;  and  in  that  condition  the  deposits  are 
always  mixed  with  the  wine. 

5.  Moreover,  never  rack  at  the  following  periods  of  the  vege- 
tation of  the  vine:  when  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  at  the  time  of 
flowering,  and  especially  at  the  time  when  the  fruit  commences 
to  change  color,  in  ripening. 

6.  Never  to  proceed  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  or  a  south 
wind,  but  always  in  the  cool  of  the  morning  and  during  a  north 
wind. 

7.  To  always  make  use  of  the  sulphur  match. 

8.  Never  to  leave  the  wine  long  exposed  to  the  air. 

9.  Not  to  allow  the  wine  to  fall  too  far,  so  as  not  to  deprive 
it  of  its  carbonic  acid,  which  exerts  a  conservative  effect,  and 
thus  also  to  avoid  too  great  agitation,  which  may  be  prejudicial. 

10.  Finally,  to  use  the  greatest  care  to  free  it  from  the  least 
traces  of  sediment. 

I  have  repeated  nearly  the  language  of  the  author  quoted,  at 
the  expense  of  some  repetition,  because  the  rules  are  laid  down 
by  him  more  minutely  than  by  the  other  authors  who  agree  with 
him  in  general  terms. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  most  critical  periods  for  wine  on  the  lees 
are  the  different  periods  of  the  vegetation  above  mentioned,  which 
vary  somewhat  in  different  climates,  and  they  should  therefore  be 
racked  before  these  epochs  arrive. 

New  Bed  Wines,  says  Mr.  Boireau,  which  have  been  properly 
made,  which  are  clear.,  which  do  not  work,  and  which  are  kept 
in  closed  cellars,  should  be  drawn  off  four  times  during  the  first 
year;  the  first  racking  is  performed  as  soon  as  the  insensible  fer- 
mentation has  ceased,  and  the  wine  has  become  clear,  i.e.,  during 
the  first  cold  weather  of  December;  the  second  in  March,  before 
the  sprouting  of  the  vine,  or  at  the  vernal  equinox;  the  third 
before  the  flowering  of  the  vine,  in  June;  and  the  fourth  at  the 
autumnal  equinox,  in  September.  Machard  considers  that  no 
racking  is  so  important  as  that  of  March,  and  he  insists  upon  it 
that  it  should  never  be  omitted,  and  that  it  should  be  well  done, 


HACKING.  93 

for  if  the  lees  are  all  removed  then,  it  may  even  go  safely  till  the 
next  vintage,  and  the  June  or  July  racking  be  omitted,  except  in 
warm,  climates;  and  then,  as  before  observed,  it  should  be  done  in 
the  cool  of  the  day.  Instead  of  waiting  till  September,  the  opera- 
tion is  often  performed  in  August,  when  the  grape  begins  to  turn. 
Of  course,  the  periods  change  somewhat  in  different  climates,  as 
already  observed,  so  that  the  cellar-man  must  familiarize  himself 
with  the  conduct  of  the  wine  in  his  locality,  and  govern  himself 
accordingly,  racking  before  the  period  arrives  when  the  wine 
usually  works. 

Old  Red  Wines  are  racked  only  twice  a  year,  in  the  spring 
and  fall,  before  the  equinoxes,  except  in  case  of  their  becoming- 
turbid  by  secondary  fermentations,  when  they  must  be  racked, 
whatever  the  time  of  year,  except  also  in  case  of  certain  diseases. 
If,  however,  the  wine  has  not  been  well  made  or  properly  cared 
for,  it  may  show  signs  of  fermentation  arid  alteration,  and  need 
racking  at  periods  different  from  those  above  mentioned.  If  the 
wine  does  not  clear  of  itself  by  the  time  it  should  be  drawn  off, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  clarify  it  by  fining  (which  see).  But  if 
well  made  and  properly  cared  for,  it  will  ordinarily  clear  itself. 

New  White  Wines  are  racked  as  soon  as  they  become  clear, 
and  no  precise  epoch  can  be  fixed  for  the  operation,  because  the 
duration  of  the  fermentation  depends  essentially  upon  the  density 
of  the  must  and  the  temperature.  In  any  case,  it  is  much  more 
prolonged  than  that  of  red  wines.  It  often  happens  that  it  con- 
tinues till  the  month  of  February,  when  the  must  is  very  rich  in 
sugar,  especially  if  the  weather  is  cold  late  in  the  fall;  while  wines 
made  of  grapes  from  the  same  vineyard,  made  in  the  same  way, 
but  less  rich  in  the  saccharine  principle,  may  terminate  their  fer- 
mentation in  December. 

The  racking  should  always  be  performed  before  the  weather 
becomes  warm,  for  the  elevation  of  the  temperature  will  set  the 
wine  working,  and  the  lees  will  become  mixed  with  it.  Ordinarily 
the  most  favorable  time  is  the  month  of  February. 

Subsequent  RackingS. — White  wine,  new  or  old,  requires  to 
be  racked  three  times  a  year,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  Whita 


94  RACKING. 

Wine;  first,  in  March,  at  the  time  of  the  sprouting  of  the  vine, 
before  the  equinox;  secondly,  at  the  flowering  of  the  vine,  in 
June,  before  the  summer  solstice;  and  thirdly,  in  September,  at 
the  ripening  of  the  grape,  before  the  autumnal  equinox.  (See 
While  Wine,  Racking.) 

Care  to  be  Observed. — Contact  with  the  air  should  be  care- 
fully avoided  during  the  operation.  The  same  care  should  be 
observed  as  in  racking  red  wine,  and  the  operation  is  performed 
in  the  same  manner,  always  keeping  in  view  that  what  may  be 
essential  to  keep  a  mellow  wine  in  condition,  may  to  a  certain 
extent  be  neglected  where  dry  ness  is  desired. 

A  sulphur  match  ought  always  to  be  burned  in  the  cask  before 
wine,  either  red  or  white,  is  racked  into  it,  for  thus  the  germs  of 
fermentation  which  may  be  in  the  cask  will  be  rendered  inactive 
by  the  sulphurous  acid  formed,  and  which  will  also  absorb  with 
avidity  the  oxygen,  and  thereby  in  two  ways  tend  to  prevent  fer- 
mentation. The  cask,  however,  should  not  be  sulphured  till  well 
drained,  or  the  water  remaining  will  be  impregnated  with  the  gas, 
which  is  liable  to  give  a  disagreeable  sulphur  taste  to  the  wine 
which  will  not  disappear  for  some  time.  (See  Sulphuring.)  A 
cask  which  has  been  put  away  sulphured  must  for  the  same 
reason  be  washed  before  using;  and  in  fact  no  cask  should  be 
used  without  washing. 

Other  Precautions. — Great  care  must  be  taken  in  all  cases 
not  to  disturb  the  sediment  by  moving  the  cask,  by  pounding  on 
the  stave  to  loosen  the  bung,  or  by  driving  in  the  faucet.  The 
latter  ought  to  be  opened  before  inserting  it,  so  as  to  allow  the  air 
contained  in  it  to  escape,  and  not  to  force  itself  into  the  cask  and 
trouble  the  wine,  which  it  is  liable  to  do  by  contraction  and 
expansion,  forcing  in  the  faucet.  It  should  be  closed  as  soon  as 
the  wine  begins  to  run.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  an  empty 
bucket  should  be  kept  under,  when  putting  in  the  faucet,  to  catch 
the  wine  that  may  escape.  Care  must  also  be  taken  that  the  cask 
to  be  filled,  and  all  the  utensils  used  in  and  about  the  racking, 
are  scrupulously  clean,  and  buckets,  hose,  funnels,  siphons,  etc., 


RACKING. 


95 


must  be  washed  carefully  every  day,  for  if  allowed  to  stand  with 
wine  in  them,  they  will  become  sour.  Siphons  and  short  tubes 
can  be  scoured  by  means  of  a  brush,  such  as  is  used  for  cleaning 
bottles  and  lamp  chimneys,  by  attaching  it  to  a  long,  stiff  wire. 

Different  Methods  of  Racking. — The  commonest  way  is  to 


fig.  16. 


Jack  for  tipping 
a  Cask. 

Fig.  17. 


draw  the  wine  through  a  faucet  into  a  bucket,  and 
pour  it  into  the  empty  cask  by  means  of  a  funnel. 
The  faucet  is  placed  in  a  hole  bored  in  the  end  of 
the  cask,  an  inch  or  more  above  the  lower  stave. 
After  the  faucet  has  been  placed  in  position,  vent 
the  cask  of  wine,  but  not  before.  When  the  wine 
no  longer  runs,  the  cask  should  be  slightly  tipped 
forward,  but  by  a  very  easy  and  gradual  move- 
ment, so  as  not  to  disturb  the  lees.  This  may 
be  done  by  a  man  carefully  lifting  the  rear  end. 
A  kind  of  hoisting-jack  (fig.  16)  is  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  lower  end  rests  on  the  ground, 
near  the  rear  end  of  the  cask,  and  the  upper  end 
of  the  movable  rod  is  placed  under  the  upper 
chime.  On  turning  the  crank  the  cask  is  tipped 
gently  forward,  and  a  ratchet  catches  the  pinion 
and  prevents  the  return.  If  there  is  not  suffi- 
cient space  between  the  wall  and  the  cask  to 
operate  in  the  manner  stated,  one  end  of  the 
jack  is  placed  against  the  wall  above  the  cask, 
and  the  power  is  applied  to  the  upper  forward 
part  of  the  cask  by  placing  the  other  end  behind 
a  forward  hoop. 

The  fork  (fig.  17)  is  used  in  the  same  way, 
being  lengthened  by  means  of  the  screw.  Fig. 
18  represents  another  contrivance  for  the  same 
purpose. 


Fork  for  tip-  If     Onlv    °ne   man    is    emPloyed>  a    lever    SUP~ 

ping  a  Cask.         ported   above  the   cask  by  two   legs  straddling 

it,  and  forming  the  fulcrum,   the  rear  end  provided  with  a 


96 


EAGKING. 


Fig.  18. 


hook  which  hooks  under  the  chime,  and  the  other  end  extend- 
ing forward   beyond  the  front,   may  be   used   (fig.    19).     The 

workman,  by  bearing  down 
on  the  lever,  or  by  pulling  the 
strap  at  the  end,  tips  the  cask 
forward.  When  the  wine  has 
nearly  all  run  out,  it  should  fre- 
quently be  examined  by  holding 
a  small  quantity  to  the  light  in  a 
small,  thin  glass,  and  as  soon  as 
the  slightest  appearance  of  lees 
presents  itself,  the  operation 
should  cease,  and  none  of  the 
muddy  wine  should  be  poured 
into  the  other  cask.  This  method 
has  its  advantages,  in  that  the 
first  appearance  of  cloudiness  can 
be  detected,  for  the  liquid  is 
always  under  the  eye  of  the  opera- 
tor, but  it  has  the  disadvantage 
of  greatly  exposing  the  wine  to 
the  air. 


Implement  for  tipping  a  Cask 

Fig.,  19. 


Another  method  which  avoids 
the  last  objection,  is  to  securely 
connect  the  faucet  of  the  cask  of 
wine  with  the  faucet  of  the  empty 
one,  to  open  them  both,  and  let 
the  wine  run  from  one  to  the  other. 
If  they  are  both  on  the  same,  or 

Implement  for  tipping  a  Cask.  nearly  the  same  level,  a  portion 
only  will  be  transferred,  and  then  the  rest  may  be  forced  over  by 
connecting  the  tube  of  a  hand-bellows  tightly  with  the  bung- 
hole  of  the  cask  of  wine,  and  blowing  into  it.  This  is  easily  done 
by  attaching  the  bellows  by  means  of  a  hose  to  a  long,  hollow, 
conical  bung.  (See  fig.  20.)  As  soon  as  the  air  is  heard  in  the 
tube,  close  the  faucet,  and  before  removing  it,  bung  the  cask 


RACKING. 


97 


tight.     The  remaining  wine  is  removed  as  in  the  first  method. 

Fig.  20. 


A  Method  of  Racking. 

Pumps   and   Siphons   are   very  useful   where   wine  is  to  be 
merely  transferred  from  one  cask  to  another,  but  they  are  not 
Fig.  21.  Fig.  22. 


Siphon.  Siphon, 

well  suited  for  racking  it  from  the  lees,  for  it  is  difficult  to 
make  use  of  them  without  disturbing  the  sediment,  and  thereby 
troubling  the  liquid. 

Figs.    21    and    22    represent  two    forms   of    siphons.     They 
may  also  consist  simply  of   a  bent  tube. 


Fig.  21  shows  an  exhausting  tube  attached,  by  which  the  air 
is  sucked  out  with  the  mouth. 


98  RACKING. 

Fig.  23  shows  a  rotary  force  pump  for  transferring  wine  from 

Fig.  23. 


Rotary  Force  Pump. 

one  cask  to  another.     Lever  force  pumps  are  also  used  for  the 
same  purpose. 


CLARIFICATION.  99 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

CLARIFICATION FINING . 

* 

When  Necessary. — Wines  do  not  always  acquire  the  desirable 
state  of  brightness  and  limpidity  by  repose  and  racking,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  clarify  them.  They  may  become  cloudy 
through  secondary  fermentations,  which  cause  the  lees  once 
deposited  to  rise  and  become  again  mixed  with  the  liquid,  or 
through  changes  of  temperature,  by  transportation,  by  careless 
racking,  etc. ,  and  by  mixing  different  kinds  together;  or  they  may 
fail  to  clear  naturally,  because  not  possessed  of  sufficient  tannin 
or  albumen  to  precipitate  the  different  matters  held  in  suspension. 
Weak  wines  of  poor  years  may  contain  ferments  in  excess  of  their 
sugar,  which  may  be  removed  by  clarification,  and  so  fermenta- 
tion be  checked  or  retarded.  Wines,  however,  which  are  well 
made  and  properly  cared  for,  ought  to  become  bright  without 
recourse  to  clarification,  and  such  will  be  found  preferable  to, 
and  will  possess  more  fruitness,  unctuosity,  and  color,  than 
those  which  have  been  clarified  by  several  finings.  And  for  these 
reasons — although  it  may  be  necessary  to  fine  such  wines  as  do 
not  naturally  clear  themselves — care  must  be  observed  not  to 
carry  the  process  too  far,  and  deprive  them  of  the  tannin  neces- 
sary to  their  preservation,  as  well  as  of  too  much  of  their  color, 
fruity  flavor,  and  mellowness. 

The  Different  Substances  Employed  for   Clarifying  act 

either  chemically  and  mechanically,  or  simply  mechanically. 
Among  the  latter  are  blotting  paper,  either  in  sheets  or  in  pulp, 
fine  sand,  and  powdered  stone,  which  are  placed  in  the  cask,  and 
which  in  falling,  carry  down  with  them  the  matters  which  are  held 
in  suspension.  Wine  is  sometimes  clarified  by  filtering  it  through 
woolen  bags.  Those  substances  which  act  both  chemically  and 
mechanically  are  albumen  and  gelatine,  and  similar  substances. 
Of  Gelatinous  Substances,  two  kinds  are  used,  gelatine, 
so-called,  and  isinglass,  or  fish  glue,  and  they  act  in  two  ways. 


100  CLARIFICATION. 

They  are  not  entirely  dissolved  in  water;  thin,  transparent  pelli- 
cles remain  in  suspension,  which  form  a  sort  of  network  in  the 
wine,  and  in  settling  they  carry  with  them  other  insoluble  matters. 
Thus,  their  action  is  mechanical.  The  portion  which  is  fully 
dissolved  is  pure  gelatine,  and  acts  chemically.  It  combines 
with  the  tannin  of  the  wine  and  forms  an  insoluble  substance, 
tannate  of  gelatine,  which  is  readily  precipitated. 

Gelatine,  so-called,  is  prepared  from  the  bones,  skin,  and 
tendons  of  animals,  and  is  sold  in  tablets  or  sheets,  and  is  some- 
times chipped  or  broken  into  small  fragments.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  finings,  and  causes  a  loss  by  precipitation  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  tannin  and  of  the  coloring  matter  of 
the  wine.  It  should  not,  therefore,  be  used  in  clarifying  red  wines, 
except  when  it  is  desirable  to  deprive  them  of  a  portion  of  their 
roughness  caused  by  an  excess  of  tannin,  or  of  a  portion  of  their 
color;  and  it  should  always  be  employed  with  caution.  It  pro- 
duces more  sediment  than  the  two  substances  next  named,  and 
leaves  a  bad  taste  in  the  wine,  unless  perfectly  fresh  matters  have 
been  used  in  its  preparation.  For  the  latter  reason,  wine  clarified 
with  it  should  be  racked  from  the  finings  as  soon  as  cleared.  It 
may  be  profitably  used  to  clarify  common  white  wines;  and  if 
they  are  difficult  to  clarify,  tannin  should  be  added  as  described 
below. 

Preparation. — Take  about  two  tablets,  or  one  ounce,  for  one 
hundred  gallons,  or  double  the  quantity,  if  the  greatest  possible 
effect  is  desired.  Dissolve  it  in  a  dish  over  the  fire  with  a  little 
water,  constantly  stirring,  and  do  not  allow  the  water  to  boil.  If 
previously  soaked  a  few  hours  in  water,  it  will  dissolve  all  the 
more  easily.  Use  as  directed  below. 

Isinglass,  Fish  Glue,  or  Ichthyocol  (Ichthyocolla  of  the 
pharmacists),  is  prepared  from  the  swimming  bladder  of  the 
sturgeon,  and  usually  comes  from  Russia.  It  acts  in  the  same 
way  as  gelatine,  mechanically,  and  also  by  combining  with  the 
tannin.  This  is  preeminently  the  fining  for  white  wine.  One 
ounce  or  more  may  be  used  for  100  gallons.  It  should  be  broken 
up  by  pounding  it  with  a  hammer  on  a  block  of  wood,  and 


CLARIFICATION.  101 

should  be  chopped  into  small  fragments,  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
dissolved.  Put  it  in  a  vessel  of  crockery,  and  pour  over  it  of  the 
wine  to  be  clarified  sufficient  to  cover  it.  Add  another  glass  or 
two  of  the  wine  in  a  few  hours,  when  the  first  has  been  absorbed. 
After  about  twenty-four  hours  it  forms  a  jelly.  This  should  be 
thinned  by  adding  more  wine  or  warm  water,  and  it  should  be 
thoroughly  worked  with  the  hand  until  completely  dissolved,  and 
then  be  strained  through  a  piece  of  linen,  using  sufficient  pressure 
to  squeeze  out  the  mucilage.  It  should  be  thoroughly  whipped 
or  beaten,  and  more  wine  is  added  if  too  thick.  After  being 
prepared,  it  may  be  kept  for  some  time  in  bottles,  by  adding  a 
little  brandy .  In  clarifying  sweet  white  wines,  it  is  recommended 
that  an  ounce  or  two  of  cream  of  tartar  be  added,  which  must 
first  be  dissolved  in  warm  water. 

Albuminous  Substances.— Among  these  are  mentioned  the 
blood  of  animals,  dried  or  fresh,  and  it  is  a  powerful  clarifier. 
About  two  quarts  to  100  gallons  are  used,  beaten  up  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  wine.  It  is  liable  to  deprive  the  wine  of  a 
portion  of  its  color,  and  sometimes  conveys  a  disagreeable  flavor, 
particularly  unless  used  when  quite  fresh.  It  should  not  be  used 
to  clarify  old  or  fine  wines,  but  may  be  employed  for  new  and 
common  ones.  It  is  of  use  in  clarifying  white  wines  which  have 
turned  yellow,  for  it  effectually  removes  this  color.  It  should  be 
used 'sparingly,  if  at  all,  for  red  wines,  and  the  wine  should  be 
drawn  from  the  finings  as  promptly  as  possible. 

Milk  is  also  used  in  the  same  way  and  in  the  same  quantity  as 
blood.  It  is  liable  to  sour,  and  a  small  quantity  is  apt  to  remain 
in  the  wine.  By  its  use  sugar  of  milk  is  introduced,  which  is 
liable  to  undergo  lactic  and  butyric  fermentations,  and  the  flavor 
of  sour  milk  and  rancid  butter  may  be  communicated  to  the 
wine.  This  may  also  be  used  to  decolor  white  wine  which  has 
become  yellow. 

The  White  of  Eggs  is  the  best  of  the  albuminous  substances 
used  for  clarifying.  It  is  coagulated  by  the  alcohol  and  tannin, 
and  forms  a  precipitate  heavier  than  the  liquid,  and  as  it  falls,  car- 
ries with  it  the  matters  remaining  in  suspension.  If  the  eggs  are 


102  CLARIFICATION. 

fresh,  as  they  always  must  be,  there  is  no  danger  of  communi- 
cating any  foreign  flavor  to  the  wine  by  their  use;  but  it  is  not 
advisable  to  use  the  yolks,  for  they  injure  the  wine  by  decoloring 
it,  and  the  sulphur  contained  in  them  may  communicate  the  odor 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  This  is  preeminently  the  fining  for 
red  wine.  It  is  also  used  for  the  clarification  of  white  wine,  but 
Machard  says  that  it  is  subject  to  be  condensed  in  the  form  of 
splinters  (esquilles),  which  obscure  rather  than  clarify  the  liquid. 
The  whites  of  ten  or  a  dozen  eggs  are  used  for  100  gallons.  They 
are  beaten  up  in  a  small  quantity  of  wine  or  water  before  using. 

Clarifying  Powders. — In  addition  to  the  subtances  mentioned, 
there  are  special  preparations  in  the  form  of  powders,  sold  for 
the  purpose,  which  are  highly  recommended  by  some  authors. 
They  are  supposed  to  consist  mainly  of  dried  blood;  directions 
for  using  are  given  on  the  package. 

Grum  Arabic,  about  10  ounces  to  100  gallons,  is  also  used, 
but  it  is  not  readily  precipitated,  and  is  apt  to  remain  in  dissolu- 
tion in  the  wine. 

Salt  is  often  added  to  the  different  finings,  by  first  dissolving  a 
small  handful  in  water.  It  renders  them  heavier,  and  as  it  is 
insoluble  in  alcohol,  it  becomes  precipitated,  and  thus  acts  in  two 
ways.  Many  authors  recommend  its  use,  but  Boireau  says  it 
should  only  be  employed  in  clarifying  common  or  very  turbid 
wines . 

Alcohol  is  added  with  great  advantage  if  the  wines  are  so  weak 
in  spirit  that  the  finings  do  not  act. 

Tannin,  however,  more  frequently  requires  to  be  added,  for 
upon  it  and  the  alcohol  depends  the  action  of  the  substances 
employed.  If  the  wine  is  not  lacking  in  alcohol,  and  the  finings 
do  not  act,  sufficient  tannin  must  be  added  to  produce  the  desired 
effect.  If  the  ordinary  tannic  acid  of  commerce  is  employed, 
one-half  to  one  ounce  for  100  gallons  may  be  used.  Dissolve 
2  Ib.  in  a  quart  of  the  strongest  alcohol,  95 J,  by  thoroughly 
shaking  in  a  bottle  of  double  the  size.  After  standing  twenty -four 
hours  it  is  filtered,  and  one  gill  of  the  solution  contains  one  ounce 


CLARIFICATION. 


103 


of  tannic  acid.  This  preparation  of  tannin,  which  is  prepared 
from  nutgalls,  is  used  for  tannifying  sparkling  wines,  because  it 
does  not  adhere  to  the  inside  of  the  bottle.  It  is  preferable,  how- 
ever, in  general  to  employ  the  tannin  derived  from  the  vine  itself. 
For  this  purpose  a  strong  decoction  is  made  by  steeping  grape 
seeds,  which  have  not  undergone  fermentation,  in  water.  They 
should  be  coarsely  broken,  or  bruised,  and  boiled  for  several 
hours.  By  adding  from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  of  its  volume  of 
strong  alcohol  of  85  per  cent.,  it  can  be  kept  for  future  use.  The 
liquor  may  be  filtered  before  adding  the  alcohol.  Instead  of  the 
seeds,  sometimes  a  handful  of  stems  are  steeped,  and  the  liquid  is 
used.  Tannified  wine  may  be  prepared  by  soaking  50  or  60  Ibs. 
of  the  bruised  seeds  in  100  gallons  of  white  wine,  for  one  or  two 
months.  It  is  cared  for  as  white  wine.  If  only  one  cask  is  to  be 
treated,  say  100  gallons,  one-half  pound  of  grapfe  seed  may  be 
reduced  to  powder  and  put  in. 

It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  a  definite  rule  as  to  the  amount  of 
either  preparation  to  use,  for  the  reason  that  the  amount  of  tan- 
Fig.  24.  nin  contained  in  the  wine  itself  varies.  Three  or  four 
gallons  of  the  tannified  wine  are  recommended  for  100 
gallons,  and  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  the  first  men- 
tioned decoction  would  be  equivalent  in  its  effects,  on 
account  of  its  additional  strength.  If,  however,  it  is 
Fig.  25.  Fig.  26.  found  that  sufficient  has  not  been 
used,  the  wine  must  be  clarified 
anew,  and  tannin  added  again. 
By  experimenting  on  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  wine,  the  proper  quantity 
may  be  ascertained. 


Method  of  Operation.  -  After  pre- 
paring the  finings  as  described  under 
the  head  of  each  of  the  substances 
already  mentioned,  two  or  three 
gallons  of  wine  are  drawn  from  the 


Implements  for  stirring, 


bung  by  the  aid  of  a  siphon,  pump,  or  other  suitable  implement, 


104  CLARIFICATION. 

the  finings  are  poured  in,  and  the  wine  is  stirred  until  thoroughly 
mixed  with  them.  This  may  be  done  with  a  stick  split  at  the 
end  into  three  or  four  prongs  (fig.  24),  or  by  a  sort  of  brush 
consisting  of  several  small  bundles  of  bristles  inserted  in  a  stick 
and  at  right  angles  to  each  other  (fig.  25),  or  with  a  sort  of  bent 
paddle,  pierced  with  holes,  called  a  whip  (fig.  26).  The  wine 
drawn  out  should  then  be  replaced  in  the  cask,  which  should  be 
completely  filled,  and  left  to  rest  till  the  wine  is  bright.  In 
filling  a  cask  which  has  recently  been  agitated,  or  into  which 
finings  have  been  put,  a  good  deal  of  froth  is  frequently  found 
which  will  run  out  at  the  bung  before  the  cask  is  full,  and  will 
prevent  the  operator  from  filling  it.  A  few  smart  blows  on 
the  bung  stave  with  a  bung  starter  will  break  the  bubbles  and 
remove  the  foam.  The  time  required  to  clarify  a  cask  of  wine 
depends  somewhat  upon  the  quality  of  the  wine  itself,  and  also 
upon  the  kind  of  finings  used.  The  usual  time  is  from  two 
weeks  to  a  month.  In  no  case,  however,  should  it  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  finings  after  it  has  cleared  and  has  ceased  to 
deposit,  for  the  sediment  may  work  up  again  and  cloud  the  wine, 
and  if  left  too  long  in  contact  with  the  deposit,  the  wine  may 
acquire  a  disagreeable  flavor. 

If,  after  leaving  the  wine  a  suitable  time,  it  still  remains  turbid 
and  continues  to  deposit,  it  should  be  racked  into  a  clean  cask 
and  fined  again,  adding  tannin,  if  necessary. 


SWEET  WINES.  105 


CHAPTEK  XIV. 

SWEET    WINES FORTIFIED    WINES. 

Generally. — The  French  give  the  name  vins  de  liqueur,  liqueur 
wines,  to  sweet  wines,  and  it  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  forti- 
fied dry  wines.  Sweet  wines  are  those  which,  after  terminating 
their  active  fermentation,  still  retain  a  quantity  of  sugar.  In 
order  to  produce  natural  sweet  wines,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
must  should  contain  a  large  amount  of  sugar;  Boireau  says,  from 
16°  to  25 J  Baume,  or  about  29  to  46  per  cent.  It  would  seem  that 
the  latter  figure  is  too  high  for  a  natural  sweet  wine,  for  it  prob- 
ably would  not  ferment  at  all,  and  to  make  a  wine  from  a  must 
containing  over  35  per  cent,  of  sugar,  the  alcohol  must  be  added. 
(See  Miusts.)  He  goes  on  to  say  that  these  wines  will  contain 
from  15  to  16  per  cent,  of  natural  alcohol,  without  addition;  the 
sugar  which  they  contain  makes  them  heavier  than  water. 

To  Increase  Sugar. — In  order  to  augment  the  amount  of  sugar, 
the  grapes  are  left  on  the  vine  till  they  become  excessively  ripe; 
in  some  places  the  stem  of  the  bunch  is  twisted  on  the  vine  to 
interrupt  the  rising  of  the  sap;  the  must  is  also  sometimes  con- 
centrated by  boiling;  sometimes  the  grapes  are  picked  and  exposed 
to  the  sun  on  screens  or  straw  mats,  until  they  become  shriveled, 
and  sometimes  they  are  dried  in  ovens. 

Without  Fermentation.— Sometimes  sweet  wines  are  made 
without  allowing  the  must  to  ferment  at  all,  by  adding  alcohol 
till  it  contains  18  or  20  per  cent,  of  spirit;  thus  all  the  sugar  is 
preserved.  Again,  they  are  made  by  mixing  with  dry  wines 
grape  syrup  or  concentrated  must,  and  fortifying. 

Care  Required. — It  has  already  been  stated  in  the  chapter  on 
keeping  wine  that  these  wines  require  less  care  than  weaker  ones. 
But  Mr.»Boireau  says  that  wines,  whether  sweet  or  dry,  whose 
strength  does  not  exceed  16  per  cent.,  require  the  same  care  as 
ordinary  wines. 


106  SWEET  WINES. 

In  order  that  sweet  and  fortified  wines  may  be  kept  in  store- 
houses subject  to  great  changes  of  temperature,  in  bottles  upright, 
or  in  casks  in  ullage — in  other  words,  under  the  conditions  in 
which  brandy  can  be  kept,  they  must  contain  18  or  20  per  cent, 
of  alcohol.  They  age  sooner  in  casks  than  in  bottles.  (See 
Aging.) 

Clarification  of  these  wines  is  effected  by  fining  or  by  filtering. 
The  best  finings  for  the  purpose  are  those  containing  albumen, 
such  as  the  whites  of  eggs,  though  fresh  blood  may  be  used,  but 
only  for  the  commoner  wines.  If  they  are  very  pasty,  tannin 
should  be  added,  and  then  they  should  be  clarified  with  a  strong 
dose  of  gelatine. 

Small  quantities  of  wine  may  be  filtered  through  paper  or 
flannel,  in  closed  filters. 

These  wines  should  always  be  allowed  to  rest  for  a  while,  and 
then  be  racked  before  shipping,  for  it  is  rare  that  they  do  not 
make  a  deposit.  (See  Fining.) 

Boiling  Must. — Pellicot  says  that  the  common  practice  in 
making  sweet  wines,  is  to  reduce  the  volume  of  the  must  by  one- 
third,  or  even  one-half,  by  boiling.  They  clear  sooner,  and 
retain  less  of  the  cooked  flavor  if  only  a  part  is  boiled,  that  is, 
if,  after  boiling,  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  volume  is  added 
of  must  from  the  sweetest  varieties  of  grapes.  In  this  way  the 
wines  are  more  agreeable,  and  sooner  matured.  When  the 
boiled  must  is  taken  from  the  cauldron,  it  must  be  briskly  stirred 
with  a  bunch  of  twigs,  or  the  like,  till  it  ceases  to  smoke,  in  order 
to  remove  a  disagreeable  flavor  which  wines  so  made  may  contract. 
He  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  greater  part  of  the  sweet  wines, 
even  of  southern  countries,  are  made  by  boiling  the  whole  or  a 
portion  of  the  must,  in  spite  of  allegations  to  the  contrary;  and 
he  considers  it  an  innocent  and  legitimate  operation,  the  only 
objection  being  the  cooked  flavor,  which  disappears  with  age. 
He  excepts,  however,  wine  made  from  very  sweet  varieties,  which 
are  ripened  artificially.  He  also  recommends  that  when  kept  in 
a  large  cask,  the  lees  should  not  be  removed,  as  they  contain  a 


SWEET  WINES.  107 

g 

good  deal  of  sugar.     As  a  certain  quantity  is  drawn  off,  it  may 
be  filled  each  year  with  new  wine  of  the  same  quality. 

Sweet  Muscat.— In  making  sweet  Muscat,  fermentation  should 
be  checked  by  the  addition  of  alcohol,  for  if  allowed  to  continue 
too  long,  the  Muscat  flavor  will  disappear.  And  this  is  usually 
necessary,  as  before  stated,  to  keep  the  wines  sweet. 

Pressing. — Where  the  grapes  are  quite  ripe,  and  somewhat 
dry,  it  may  be  difficult  to  extract  the  juice  without  a  very  pow- 
erful press;  under  such  circumstances  Machard  recommends  that, 
after  crushing,  the  grapes  be  put  into  a  vat  for  twenty-four  or 
forty-eight  hours,  according  to  the  temperature,  and  until  fer- 
mentation commences,  which  fluidifies  the  must  and  makes  it  run 
more  freely  from  the  press. 

The  Marc  of  Sweet  Wines  is  useful  to  mix  with  poor  white 
wines  to  give  them  more  sugar  and  more  strength. 

The  amount  of  Alcohol  to  be  added  varies  from  two  to  five 
per  cent.,  or  more,  depending  upon  the  amount  developed  by 
fermentation,  and  the  degree  of  sweetness  desired.  If  the  must 
is  not  allowed  to  ferment  at  all,  it  must  be  fortified  up  to  18  or 
20  per  cent.;  if,  however,  it  is  so  sweet  that  it  will  not  ferment, 
it  may  be  kept  without  the  addition  of  alcohol,  but  it  will  be 
syrup,  and  not  wine. 

Density. — Dubief  says  that  sweet  wines  should  mark  a  density 
of  from  4°  to  5°  Baume,  and  the  best  of  them  even  T. 

Furmilit  Wine. — The  following  is  the  method  given  by  Pellicot 
as  practiced  by  him  in  making  wine  from  the  Furmint  grape.  He 
gathers  the  grapes  when  they  are  very  ripe,  and  the  small  berries 
are  half  dried,  and  then  exposes  them  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  for 
six  or  eight  days,  upon  screens.  When  ready  to  crush,  he  takes 
the  screens  to  the  crusher.  The  dryest  berries  are  then  removed 
by  shaking  the  frame,  or  with  the  hand,  and  put  by  themselves; 
and  the  remainder  are  crushed  in  the  usual  manner.  Then  the 
dry  ones  are  crushed  as  well  as  possible,  and  the  two  kinds  are 
mixed  together  and  fermented.  Owing  to  the  syrupy  nature  of 


108  SWEET  WINES. 

the  must,  it  ferments  for  a  long  time,  and  without  much  effer- 
vescence. When  it  acquires  a  suitable  flavor,  it  is  drawn  off,  and 
is  then  racked  several  times  till  clear. 

Where  the  grapes  are  trodden,  it  is  probably  necessary  to  sepa- 
rate the  dry  grapes  from  the  rest,  and  crush  them  by  themselves, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  well  crushed;  but  if  a  good  crusher  is 
used,  it  would  seem  entirely  unnecessary. 

Straw  Wines,  according  to  Machard,  are  made  as  follows: 
The  ripest  bunches  are  chosen,  and  preferably  from  old  vines. 
They  are  gathered  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  dry.  They  are 
spread  upon  straw,  or  hung  up  in  the  upper  room  of  a  house. 
They  are  visited  from  time  to  time,  and  the  rotten  berries  removed. 
They  are  thus  left  till  February  or  March,  the  time  when  straw 
wine  is  usually  made.  Some,  however,  press  in  December,  but  the 
wine  has  not  the  quality  of  that  made  later.*  When  sufficiently 
dried  the  grapes  are  stemmed,  and  the  remaining  rotten  berries 
are  removed.  They  are  then  crushed  and  pressed.  The  press- 
ings are  all  mixed  together.  To  arrive  at  perfection,  such  a  wine, 
he  says,  must  be  kept  ten,  twelve,  or  more  years;  that  it  need  not 
be  racked,  nor  the  casks  made  full,  and  that  it  requires  no  fining. 

PORT  WINE. 

The  Musts  of  the  port  wine  grapes  grown  in  the  Upper  Douro, 
Portugal,  show  from  24  to  29  per  cent,  of  sugar,  according 
to  the  variety.  There  are  others  cultivated  in  the  district  which 
contain  less  sugar.  The  sweetest  of  all  is  the  Bastardo.  The 
fermentation  takes  place  under  cover,  in  what  is  called  a  lagar, 
which  is  a  large  stone  vat,  about  three  feet  deep.  According  to 
Dr.  Bleasdale,  it  is  necessary  to  gather  the  grapes  as  soon  as  they 
are  completely  ripe;  that  the  lagar  or  fermenting  vat  should  be 
filled  as  promptly  as  possible;  that  the  mass  should  be  thoroughly 
stirred;  that  the  fermentation  should  be  tumultuous  and  uninter- 
rupted, and  that  the  wine  should  be  drawn  off  when  it  has  devel- 
oped a  vinous  smell  and  flavor,  and  astringency  and  roughness 

*It  must  be  remembered  that  he  is  writing  for  the  cold  climate  of  the  Jura,  where  the 
grapes  do  not  naturally  acquire  that  degree  of  maturity  necessary  for  aweet  wines. 


SWEET  WINES.  109 

to  the  taste,  though  all  the  sugar  has  not  been  fermented.  The 
defective  grapes  are  picked  out,  and  only  good  ones  put  into  the 
vat.  As  soon  as  the  fermenting  vat  is  filled,  a  sufficient  number 
of  men  enter  into  it  to  complete  the  treading.  Three  men  to 
each  120  gallons  of  must  are  employed,  who  with  bare  feet  tread 
and  dance  upon  the  grapes.  If  fermentation  is  slow  in  starting, 
more  men  are  put  in  to  impart  warmth,  or  a  quantity  of  warm 
must  is  added.  The  first  treading  lasts,  in  the  instance  given  by 
Dr.  Bleasdale,  six  hours  during  the  first  night,  and  is  continued 
next  day  with  two  men,  where  three  were  employed  the  first  night. 
Men  enter  again  during  the  active  fermentation  and  tread  to 
keep  down  the  pomace,  and  to  extract  as  much  coloring  matter 
as  possible.  Then  the  treaders  leave  the  lagar,  but  the  fermenta- 
tion is  closely  watched. 

The  following  graphic  description,  which  differs  in  no  essential 
respect  from  that  of  Dr.  Bleasdale,  is  from  Vizitelli: 

"When  the  mid-day  meal  is  over,  the  grapes  having  been 
already  spread  perfectly  level  in  the  lagar,  a  band  of  sixty  men  is 
told  off  to  tread  them.  The  casa  dos  lagares*  is  a  long  building 
with  a  low  pointed  roof,  lighted  with  square  openings  along  one 
side,  and  contains  four  lagares,  in  the  largest  of  which  sufficient 
grapes  can  be  trodden  at  one  time  to  produce  thirty  pipes  of 
wine.f  As  is  universally  the  case  in  the  Upper  Douro,  .these 
lagares  are  of  stone,  and  about  three  feet  in  depth.  In  front  of 
each,  and  on  a  lower  level,  is  a  small  stone  reservoir,  called  a 
dorno,  into  which  the  expressed  juice  flows  after  the  treading  of 
the  grapes  is  concluded,  and  which  communicates  by  pipes  with 
the  huge  tonels||  in  the  adega  below,  although  not  beneath  the 
lagares,  being  in  fact  in  the  face  of  the  reservoirs,  but  on  a  level 
some  twelve  feet  lower,  with  a  long,  wooden  staircase  leading  to 
it.  In  front  of  the  lagares  runs  a  narrow  stone  ledge,  to  which 
ascent  is  gained  by  a  few  steps,  and  here  while  the  treading  is 
going  on  the  overseers  post  themselves,  long  staves  in  hand,  in 

v  Fermenting  house. 

tA  pipe  is  i;«  wine  gallons,  or  115  Imperial. 

y  Tuus. 


110  SWEET  WINES. 

order  to  see  that  every  one  performs  his  share  of  labor.  The 
treaders,  with  their  white  breeches  well  tucked  up,  mount  into 
the  lagar,  where  they  form  three  separate  rows  of  ten  men  each 
on  either  side  of  the  huge,  overhanging  beam,  and  placing  their 
arms  on  each  other's  shoulders,  commence  work  by  raising  and 
lowering  their  feet  alternately,  calling  out  as  they  do  so,  'Direita, 
esquerda  !  '  (Eight,  left ! )  varying  this  after  a  time  with  songs  arid 
shoutings  in  order  to  keep  the  weaker  and  lazier  ones  up  to  the' 
work,  which  is  quite  as  irksome  and  monotonous  as  either  tread- 
mill or  prison  crank,  which  tender-hearted  philanthropists 
regard  with  so  much  horror.  But  the  lagariros  have  something 
more  than  singing  or  shouting  to  encourage  them.  Taking  part 
with  them  in  the  treading  is  a  little  band  of  musicians,  with 
drum,  fife,  fiddle,  and  guitar,  who  strike  up  a  lively  tune,  while 
their  comrades  chime  in,  some  by  whistling,  others  with  castanets. 
Occasionally,  too,  nips  of  brandy  are  served  out,  and  the  over- 
seers present  cigarettes  all  round,  whereupon  the  treaders  vary 
their  monotonous  movements  with  a  brisker  measure.  This  first 
treading,  the  '  sovar  o  vinho,'  or  beating  the  wine,  as  it  is  called, 
lasts,  with  occasional  respites  and  relays  of  fresh  men,  for 
eighteen  hours.  A  long  interval  now  ensues,  and  then  the  tread- 
ing or  beating  is  resumed.  By  this  time  the  grapes  are  pretty  well 
crushed,  and  walking  over  the  pips  and  stalks  strewn  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  lagar,  becomes  something  like  the  pilgrimages  of  old, 
when  the  devout  trudged  wearily  along  with  hard  peas  packed 
between  the  soles  of  their  feet  and  the  soles  of  their  shoes.  The 
lagariros,  with  their  garments  more  or  less  bespattered  with  grape- 
juice,  move  slowly  about  in  their  mauve-colored  mucilaginous  bath 
in  a  listless  kind  of  way,  now  smoking  cigarettes,  now  with  their 
arms  folded,  or  thrown  behind  their  backs,  or  with  their  hands 
tucked  in  their  waistcoat  pockets,  or  raised  up  to  their  chins,  while 
they  support  the  elbow  of  the  one  arm  with  the  hand  of  the  other. 
The  fiddle  strikes  up  anew,  the  drum  sounds,  the  fife  squeaks, 
the  guitar  tinkles,  and  the  overseers  drowsily  upraid.  But  all  to 
no  purpose.  Music  has  lost  its  inspiration,  and  authority  its 
terrors,  and  the  men,  dead  beat,  raise  one  purple  leg  languidly 
after  the  other.  In  the  still  night  time,  with  a  few  lanterns  dimly 


SWEET  WINES.  Ill 

lighting  up  the  gloomy  casa  dos  lagares,  such  a  scene  as  I  have 
here  attempted  to  sketch  has  something  almost  weird  about  it. 
By  the  time  the  treading  is  completed,  the  violent  fermentation 
of  the  must  has  commenced,  and  is  left  to  follow  its  course.* 
Accordingly,  as  the  grapes  are  moderately  or  overripe,  and  the 
atmospheric  temperature  is  high  or  low,  and  it  is  intended  that 
the  wine  shall  be  sweet  or  dry,  this  fermentation  will  be  allowed 
to  continue  for  a  shorter  or  a  longer  period,  varying  from  fifteen 
hours  to  several  days,  during  which  time  the  husks  and  stalks  of 
the  grapes,  rising  to  the  surface,  form  a  thick  incrustation.  To 
ascertain  the  proper  moment  for  drawing  off  the  wine  into  tonels, 
recourse  is  usually  had  to  the  saccharometer,  when,  if  this  marks 
four  or  five  degrees,  the  farmer  knows  that  the  wine  will  be  sweet; 
if  a  smaller  number  of  degrees  are  indicated,  the  wine  will  be 
moderately  sweet,  while  zero  signifies  that  the  wine  will  be  dry. 
Some  farmers  judge  the  state  of  the  fermentation  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  wine  on  the  conventional  white  porcelain  saucer,  and 
the  vinous  smell  and  flavor  which  it  then  exhibits.  When  it  is 
ascertained  that  the  wine  is  sufficiently  fermented,  it  is  at  once  run 
off  into  the  large  tonels,  holding  their  10  to  30  pipes  each,  themosto 
extracted  from  the  husks  of  the  grapes  by  the  application  of  the 
huge  beam  press  being  mixed  with  the  expressed  juice  resulting 
from  the  treading.  It  is  now  that  brandy — not  poisonous  Beilin 
potato  spirit,  but  distilled  from  the  juice  of  the  grape — is  added 
at  the  rate  of  62  to  11  gallons  per  pipe,|  if  it  is  desired  that  the 
wine  should  retain  its  sweetness.  Should,  however,  the  wine  be 
already  dry,  the  chances  are  that  it  will  receive  no  spirit  at  all. 
The  bungs  are  left  out  of  the  tonels  till  November,  when  they 
are  tightly  replaced,  and  the  wine  remains  undisturbed  until  the 
cold  weather  sets  in,  usually  during  the  month  of  December. 
By  this  time  the  wine  has  cleared  and  become  of  a  dark  purple 
hue.  It  is  now  drawn  off  its  lees,  and  returned  again  to  the 
tonel,  when  it  receives  about  5  gallons  of  brandy  per  pipe.§  In 

*  It  will  be  noticed  that  Dr.  Bleasdale  says  that  the  treading  is  repeated  during  active 
fermentation.    Probably  different  practices  prevail  in  different  localities. 
f  About  \%  to  9%  per  cent— say  5  to  10. 
H-35  per  ceii  t. 


112  SWEET  WINES. 

the  following  March  it  will  be  racked  into  pipes  preparatory  to 
being  sent  down  the  Douro  to  the  wine  shippers'  lodges  at  Villa 
Nova  de  Gaia,"  a  suburb  of  Oporto. 

These  Lodges  or  Storehouses  are  large,  one-story  buildings 
above  ground,  dimly  lighted  through  small  windows,  for  Mr. 
Vizitelli  informs  us  that  it  is  considered  that  ports  mature  less  per- 
fectly when  subject  to  the  influence  of  the  light.  But  like  other 
fortified  wines,  exposure  to  the  air  is  considered  beneficial  to 
them;  and  in  racking,  they  are  drawn  off  into  a  wooden  pitcher 
holding  about  five  gallons,  and  poured  into  the  cask  to  be  filled, 
coming  freely  in  contact  with  the  air. 

All  Wines  of  Similar  Character  are  Blended  together  at 

the  lodge,  by  mixing  in  largs  vats,  sometimes  stirred  with  a  large 
fan  operated  by  machinery.  The  blending  is  also  performed 
in  casks,  by  pouring  into  each  one  successively  a  certain  number 
of  gallons  of  each  kind  of  wine,  so  that  the  contents  of  all  the 
casks  will  be  uniform.  A  small  quantity  of  spirit  is  usually 
added  at  the  time  of  cutting.  After  blending  the  wine  is  racked 
every  three  months,  until  in  a  condition  for  shipment,  which  may 
be  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty -four  months,  according  to  quality. 

Port  loses  its  Color  rapidly  in  Wood,  and  much  of  its  full- 
ness, and  wines  five  years  old  cease  to  be  regarded  as  shipping 
wines,  and  are  then  kept  in  store  and  used  to  give  age  and  char- 
acter to  younger  wines.  It  is  then  a  valuable,  old,  mellow,  and 
tawny  wine,  which  the  merchants  of  Oporto  themselves  drink. 

Port  Wine  Contains  from  18  to  23  per  cent,  of  absolute 
Alcohol  after  fortifying,  the  amount  of  spirit  added  depending 
upon  how  much  is  developed  by  fermentation,  and  the  amount 
of  sugar  in  the  grapes.  It  is  customary  to  add  a  small  amount 
whenever  it  is  racked,  and  before  shipping.  The  object  of  these 
frequent  additions  is  to  keep  up  the  necessary  strength,  for  a 
certain  amount  of  alcohol  is  constantly  evaporating  while  the 
wine  is  in  casks,  and  it  may  fall  below  the  required  strength  if 
these  additions  are  not  made. 

Mr.  Vizitelli  has  fallen  into  the  error  of  stating  that  in  dry 


SWEET  WINES.  113 

climates  wine  becomes  stronger  by  the  evaporation  of  its  watery 
parts;  but  this  is  impossible,  for  alcohol  is  more  volatile  than 
water,  and  whenever  there  is  evaporation  in  a  wine,  it  becomes 
weaker  from  the  loss  of  alcohol;  and  whenever  a  wine  gains 
strength  by  keeping,  it  is  because  the  sugar  contained  in  it  has 
been  transformed  into  alcohol,  etc.,  by  fermentation,  as  stated  in 
other  parts  of  this  work. 

MADEIRA. 

Making. — In  the  island  of  Madeira  it  is  the  practice,  according 
to  Mr.  Vizitelli,  to  tread  the  grapes  thoroughly  in  a  large,  square 
wooden  trough,  or  lagar,  in  which  they  are  also  pressed,  as  in 
sherry  making.  A  great  part  of  the  juice  is  extracted  by  treading, 
being  strained  through  a  basket  as  it  runs  off  into  casks.  After 
the  grapes  have  been  thoroughly  trodden,  the  pomace  is  gathered 
together  and  piled  in  the  centre  of  the  lagar,  and  pressed  and 
patted  with  the  hands  to  extract  the  must,  and  this  is  repeated 
three  times,  and  finally  the  pomace  is  again  raised  in  a  mound, 
wound  with  a  rope,  and  pressed  by  means  of  a  heavy  beam  sus- 
pended over  the  lagar.  This  primitive  method,  however,  can 
have  but  little  interest  for  the  wine  maker,  as  the  essential  practice 
in  making  Madeira,  or  rather  in  the  aging  of  it,  is  the  application 
of  heat. 

Casks,  Treatment. — The  must  is  fermented,  the  wine  racked 
and  heated,  in  casks  holding  130  gallons.  After  heating,  it  is 
stored  in  casks  holding  about  400  gallons.  It  is  fermented  in 
these  smaller  casks  with  the  bung  open,  simply  covered  by  a 
leaf,  till  the  month  of  November.  Either  before  or  after  the  fer- 
mentation, a  small  quantity  of  brandy  is  added,  varying  in 
quantity  according  to  the  quality  of  the  must,  but  seldom  exceed- 
ing three  per  cent.  When  the  wine  has  well  cleared,  it  is  racked 
and  lotted,  according  to  quality,  and  forwarded  to  the  heating 
house,  or  estufa. 

Heating  House,  Heating. — One  of  these  at  Funchal,  described 
by  Vizitelli,  consists  of  a  block  of  buildings  of  two  stories,  divided 
into  four  compartments.  "  In  the  first  of  these,  common  wines 


114  SWEET  WINES. 

are  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  140°  F.,  derived  from  flues  heated 
with  anthracite  coal,  for  the  space  of  three  months.  In  the  next 
compartment  wines  of  an  intermediate  quality  are  heated  up  to 
130J  for  a  period  of  four  and  a-half  months,  while  the  third  is 
set  apart  for  superior  wines,  heated  variously  from  110°  to  120° 
for  the  term  of  six  months.  The  fourth  compartment,  known  as 
the  'calor,'  possesses  no  flues,  but  derives  its  heat,  varying  from 
90°  to  100J,  exclusively  from  the  compartments  adjacent;  and 
here  only  high-classed  wines  are  placed."  They  receive  a  further 
addition  of  spirit,  after  leaving  the  estufa,  varying  in  quantity 
from  one  to  three  gallons  per  cask,  presumably  to  supply  what 
has  evaporated  during  the  heating.  Wines  are  also  heated  by 
exppsing  them  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  glass  houses.  In  the  day 
time  a  temperature  of  120°  to  130°  is  secured,  which  becomes  con- 
siderably less  during  the  night,  which  change  is  by  many  considered 
detrimental.  Some  again,  put  the  casks  out  of  doors  in  the  full 
sunshine.  In  the  estufas  mentioned,  the  pipes  are  placed  on  end 
in  stacks  of  four,  with  smaller  casks  on  the  top,  a  gangway  being- 
left  between  the  different  stacks.  The  casks  are  vented  with  a 
small  hole  during  the  process.  Leaking  is  common  during  the 
exposure  to  so  great  a  heat,  and  it  is  necessary  to  inspect  the  casks 
once  during  every  day  and  once  during  the  night. 

Each  compartment  is  provided  with  double  doors,  and  after  it 
is  tilled  with  wine,  the  inner  door  is  plastered  so  as  to  stop  all 
the  cracks.  In  entering  the  estufa,  only  the  outer  door  is  opened, 
entrance  through  the  inner  one  being  made  through  a  small  door 
for  the  purpose.  The  man  who  examines  the  casks,  coming  out 
after  a  stay  of  an  hour,  drinks  a  tumblerful  of  wine,  and  cools 
off  in  a  tight  room  provided  for  the  purpose.  From  10  to  15 
per  cent,  of  the  wine  is  lost  by  evaporation  while  it  remains  in 
the  heating  house. 

General  Treatment— Alcoholic  Strength.— The  solera  system 
is  somewhat  in  vogue  in  Madeira,  as  in  the  sherry  country.  The 
practice  also  of  leaving  the  casks  in  ullage  prevails— a  vacant 
space  of  ten  or  a  dozen  gallons  is  left.  On  the  south  side  of  the 
island  5  per  cent,  is  the  largest  amount  of  alcohol  added,  and  on 


SWEET  WINES.  115 

the  north  side  a  little  more,  which  is  added  at  different  times. 
Most  Madeira  is  dry,  or  nearly  so,  and  contains  about  18  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  on  the  average. 

SHERRY. 

Climate. —  According  to  General  Keyes,  the  climate  of  the 
sherry  districts  of  Spain  is  a  trifle  warmer  in  winter  and  about 
the  same  in  summer  as  that  of  Napa  Valley.  But  the  seasons 
are  not  so  distinctly  wet  and  dry  as  in  California,  and  the  grapes 
are  sometimes  rained  on  while  growing,  and  are  frequently  wet 
while  ripening.  Neverthless,  the  south  of  Spain  is  a  dry  country. 

The  Vintage  begins  in  the  early  part  of  September,  at  which 
time  the  grapes  are  ripe,  but  by  no  means  overripe,  but  sweet 
and  luscious.  The  grapes  are  picked  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day,  and  spread  upon  mats  in  the  sun,  where  they  remain  till  the 
evening  of  the  same  day,  when  they  are  crushed.  General  Keyes 
says  that  they  are  invariably  crushed  in  the  evening  of  the  same 
day,  but  Mr.  Vizitelli  states  that  they  remain  on  the  straw  mats 
from  one  to  three  days.  As  both  write  from  observation,  it 
would  seem  that  the  practice  varies,  the  time  of  the  exposure  to 
the  sun  probably  depending  upon  the  degree  of  maturity  when 
picked.  The  defective  berries  are  carefully  removed.  The  cool 
of  the  night  for  crushing  is  preferred  to  the  heat  of  the  day,  and 
to  avoid  the  precipitation  of  fermentation. 

Crushing. — Mr.  Vizitelli's  description  is  as  follows :  ' '  The  press- 
ing commenced  between  seven  and  eight  o'clock,  and  was  accom- 
plished in  a  detached  building  under  a  low  tiled  roof,  but  entirely 
open  in  front.  Passing  through  the  gateway,  and  stumbling  in 
the  dim  light  afforded  by  an  occasional  lamp  fixed  against  the 
wall,  over  a  rudely  paved  court-yard,  we  found  ourselves  beside 
a  row  of  large,  stout  wooden  troughs,  some  ten  feet  square  and  a 
couple  of  feet  deep,  raised  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
known  in  the  vernacular  of  the  vineyards  as  lagares.  The  bot- 
toms of  these  receptacles  were  already  strewn  with  grapes,  lightly 
sprinkled  over  with  yeso  ( gypsum ),  which  if  spread  over  the  whole 
of  the  bunches,  would  not  have  been  greatly  in  excess  of  the 


116  SWEET  WINES. 

amount  of  dust  ordinarily  gathered  by  a  similar  quantity  of  grapes 
conveyed  in  open  baskets  on  the  backs  of  mules  from  the  vine- 
yards to  the  pressing  places  in  the  towns.  At  Torre  Breva,  the 
sixty  or  more  arrobas  of  grapes  (1500  Ibs.)  required  to  make  each 
butt  of  wine,  were  having  from  two  to  four  pounds  of  yeso 
sprinkled  over  them,  or  about  half  the  quantity  which  would  be 
used  in  a  moist  season.  I  was  assured  that  at  last  year's  vintage 
here  not  a  single  ounce  of  yeso  was  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  upwards  of  700  butts  of  wine.  *  *  *  Rising  perpendicu- 
larly in  the  centre  of  each  of  the  four  lagares  to  a  height  of  about 
seven  feet,  is  a  tolerably  powerful  screw,  which  is  only  brought 
into  requisition  after  the  grapes  have  been  thoroughly  trodden. 
A  couple  of  swarthy,  bare-legged  pisadores  leap  into  each  lagar, 
and  commence  spreading  out  the  bunches  with  wooden  shovels; 
and  soon  the  whole  eight  of  them,  in  their  short  drawers,  blue- 
striped  shirts,  little  caps,  red  sashes,  and  hob-nailed  shoes,  are 
dancing  a  more  or  less  lively  measure,  ankle- deep  in  newly- 
crushed  grapes.  They  dance  in  couples,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  screw,  performing  certain  rapid,  pendulum-like  movements 
which  are  supposed  to  have  the  virtue  of  expressing  the  juice 
more  satisfactorily  from  the  fruit  than  can  be  accomplished 
by  mere  mechanical  means.  Their  saltatory  evolutions  ended, 
the  trodden  grapes  are  heaped  up  on  one  side  and  well  patted 
about  with  the  shovel,  like  so  much  newly  mixed  mortar.  This 
causes  the  expressed  juice  to  flow  out  in  a  dingy,  brown,  turgid 
stream  through  the  spout  fixed  in  front  of  the  lagar,  into  a  metal 
strainer,  and  thence  into  the  vat  placed  beneath  to  receive  it. 
Fresh  grapes  are  now  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  lagar,  and, 
after  being  duly  danced  upon,  are  shoveled  on  one  side;  and 
this  kind  of  thing  goes  on  until  sufficient  trodden  murk  has  been 
accumulated  to  make  what  is  called  a  pile." 

Pressing. — His  description  goes  on  to  show  that  the  treaders 
give  place  to  the  pressers,  who,  with  wooden  shovels,  build  up  a 
mound  of  marc  under  the  screw,  conical  in  form,  some  five  feet 
high,  which  is  neatly  dressed  and  trimmed,  and  then  wound 
around  with  a  straw  rope  or  band,  about  four  inches  wide,  from 


SWEEI  WINES.  117 

base  to  summit.  A  circular  piece  of  wood  is  placed  on  the  top, 
and  the  pressure  is  applied  by  means  of  the  screw,  the  must 
passing  through  the  insterstices  of  the  straw  band. 

Treading  and  pressing  goes  on  nightly  for  fourteen  hours, 
with  occasional  intervals  for  refreshment. 

The  wine  from  J;he  press  is  invariably  fermented  separately 
from  that  of  the  first  run  during  the  treading. 

All  agree  that  the  grapes  are  crushed  without  stemming,  but  it 
seems  that  the  practice  of  pressing  with  the  stems  on  is  not  uni- 
form. General  Keyes  says  that  he  made  careful  inquiry  on  this 
subject,  and  was  informed  that  only  a  few  of  the  larger  stems 
were  removed,  while  Mr.  Vizitelli  states  that  the  sherry  wine 
maker  is  so  much  afraid  of  tannin  and  roughness  in  the  wine, 
that  the  stems  are  all  removed  before  the  pomace  is  pressed.  This 
is  not  important,  however,  as  the  press  wine  is  inferior,  and  is 
usually  distilled. 

It  is  almost  a  universal  custom  to  sprinkle  each  pressing  of 
grapes  with  two  or  three  handfuls  of  gypsum,  or  from  two  to  six 
pounds  to  a  butt  of  wine  of  130  gallons,  and  in  wet  seasons,  even 
more.  Gen.  Keyes  gives  an  instance  of  one  wine  maker  who  made 
several  casks  of  sherry  one  year  without  the  use  of  gypsum,  and 
he  found  no  material  difference  in  the  product,  but  he  still  follows 
the  custom  of  the  country.  (See  Plastering.} 

Fermenting. — The  must  is  run  into  casks  of  about  150  gallons 
capacity,  which  are  filled  only  to  within  ten  or  fifteen  gallons  of 
their  full  capacity,  and  is  left  to  ferment  in  a  cool  shed,  or  in  a 
place  separate  from  the  storehouse  or  bodega;  new  wine  is  not 
fermented  in  the  same  room  with  the  old. 

As  soon  as  the  wine  falls  bright,  which  it  does  at  any  time  from 
January  to  April,  it  is  racked  and  placed  in  the  bodega,  with  still 
a  vacant  space  in  the  cask,  and  brandy  is  added  equal  to  one  or 
two  per  cent,  to  the  stronger  wines,  and  three  or  four  per  cent, 
to  the  commoner  ones. 

If  the  wine  is  deficient  in  sugar,  it  may  clear  by  January,  but 
if  rich,  it  may  not  become  blight  till  April.  During  the  active 


118  SWEET  WINES. 

fermentation,  the  bungs,  of  course,  are  left  open,  and  in  the 
bodega  they  are  left  loose,  or  laid  over  the  hole. 

Sometimes  the  wine  is  left  undisturbed  in  the  bodega  until 
required  for  shipment,  when  it  is  racked,  clarified,  and  again 
fortified.  It  is  considered  best,  however,  to  rack  it  once  a  year. 
The  wine  is  now  well  fermented,  and  dry,  or  nearly  so,  and  the 
sugar  that  may  be  found  in  it  after  shipment,  has  been  put  in 
by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  sweet  wine. 

The  Bodegas,  or  Storehouses,  in  which  these  wines  are 
stored,  are  entirely  above  ground,  have  very  thick  walls  and 
double  doors,  the  roof  is  covered  with  tiles,  and  the  floor  may 
consist  only  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  loam,  which,  when  moist- 
ened, is  not  muddy,  and  when  dry,  is  not  very  dusty.  They  are 
kept  well  ventilated,  even  at  the  expense  of  a  good  deal  of  loss 
by  evaporation,  and  are  comparatively  cool,  the  rays  of  the  sun 
being  excluded  by  shutters.  As  only  old  or  seasoned  casks  are 
used  for  shipment,  the  new  ones  are  used  for  fermenting  the 
must,  and  so  they  are  seasoned. 

Changes  in  the  Wine. — The  young  wine  in  the  bodega  now, 
during  the  first  two  years,  undergoes  extraordinary  changes. 
That  made  from  the  same  vineyard  and  of  the  same  varieties  of 
grapes,  crushed  at  the  same  time,  placed  in  casks  side  by  side, 
receiving  apparently  identical  treatment,  developes  totally  differ- 
ent characters  in  different  butts,  and  is  classed  according  to  these 
several  characters,  as  Fino,  Oloroso,  and  Basto. 

The  best  is  ftno,  of  a  delicate,  soft,  mellow  flavor,  and  pale 
in  color,  and  only  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  take  this  form. 
The /mo,  at  times,  develops  into  a  still  finer  quality,  producing 
what  is  known  as  amontillado,  the  most  valued  of  all. 

Oloroso  is  a  nutty  flavored  development  rather  deeper  in  color, 
and  of  a  stouter  character;  when  old,  it  is  of  great  body,  and 
perfectly  dry. 

The  coarse,  inferior  kind  is  called  basto. 

There  are  still  other  casks  which  by  bad  behavior,  poor  fer- 
mentation, or  weakness,  are  only  fit  for  the  still. 

Flowers. — Sherry  produces  the  phenomenon  known  an  flowers 


SWEET  WINES.  119 

of  wine  (micoderma  rini),  of  which  a  writer  under  the  assumed 
name  of  Pedro  Verdad,  whom  I  have  frequent  occasion  to  quote, 
says:  "At  every  period,  about  the  flowering  of  the  vine,  and 
at  about  vintage  time,  the  wine  begins  to  '  breed; '  that  is,  throw 
up  a  flor  (flower),  which  remains  for  some  time  on.  the  surface, 
and  then  falls  in  sediment  to  the  bottom,  when  the  wine  once 
more  becomes  bright.  This  phenomenon  is  looked  for  with 
great  anxiety  in  the  bodegas,  for  if  it  does  not  occur,  the  wine 
may  be  assuming  some  other  and  less  valued  character.  Strange 
as  it  may  appear,"  he  says,  "I  have  seen  the  actual  flor  rise  in  a 
bottle  in  England,  just  as  in  the  butt  in  Spain." 

Vino  Dulce,  or  Sweet  Wine,  is  made  from  the  sweeter  kinds 
of  grapes,  especially  the  Pedro  Jimenes.  The  grapes  are  exposed 
to  the  sun,  sometimes  for  a  fortnight,  and  till  they  almost  become 
raisins,  and  they  then  go  through  the  ordinary  modes  of  crushing 
and  fermentation.  To  each  butt  of  this  wine  about  six  or  seven 
gallons  of  spirit  are  added,  while  the  must  of  other  grapes  have 
as  much  as  twenty  gallons  mixed  with  each  cask  of  must  to  check 
the  fermentation,  and  keep  the  wine  sweet.  One-third  of  the 
spirit  is  poured  in  as  soon  as  a  small  portion  of  the  must  has 
been  put  into  the  cask,  a  third  when  the  cask  is  half  full,  and  a 
third  when  nearly  three-quarters  full.  The  reason  is  obvious,  as 
the  spirit  is  lighter  than  the  must,  and  would  otherwise  remain 
on  the  top.  Soleras  of  vino  dulce  are  of  a  sweet,  luscious  flavor, 
and  of  an  oily  and  slightly  glutinous  consistency.  The  finer 
kinds  resemble  a  liqueur,  and  are  of  great  value. 

Vizitelli  says  that  sweet  wine  is  used  to  give  softness  and 
roundness  to  old  and  pungent  wines,  as  well  as  to  the  cruder, 
youthful  growths,  and  it  is  remarkable  how  very  small  a  quantity 
suffices  perceptibly  to  modify  these  opposite  characteristics.  As 
little  as  one  per  cent,  of  dulce  will  impart  a  softness  to  the  drier 
wines,  which  otherwise  they  only  acquire  after  being  several  years 
in  bottle. 

Color  Wine  (Vino  de  Color)  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
white  wine  and  arrope.  The  latter  is  a  must  of  white  grapes 
boiled  down  over  a  slow  fire  till  it  is  reduced  to  one-fifth  or  one- 


120  SWEET  WINES. 

sixth  of  its  orginal  quantity,  great  care  being  taken  to  skim  it 
while  boiling.  This  is  a  dark-colored,  almost  black  fluid,  of  a 
bitterish  taste .  It  is  mixed  with  from  three  to  five  times  its  volume 
of  white  wine,  and  the  "color"  is  formed.*  It  is  chiefly  used  for 
giving  color  to  young  and  undeveloped  wines.  With  great  age, 
the  solera  of  this  wine  is  very  valuable,  being  of  a  deep  brown 
color,  and  a  perfect  essence. 

Mature  Wines. — When  the  wines  have  assumed  their  dis- 
tinctive characters — and  this  requires  from  three  to  five,  or  even 
more,  years — they  are  used  to  replenish  the  soleras.  In  the 
shippers'  bodega  are  kept  many  soleras,  each  containing  a  given 
number  of  butts.  A  solera,  whether  classed  as  Jino,  oloroso,  or 
otherwise,  has  its  distinctive  qualit}^  required  in  the  preparation 
of  a  wine  for  shipment.  It  has  been  reared  and  nursed  for  years 
with  careful  attention;  each  butt  has  been  tasted  from  time  to 
time,  and  any  cask  in  which  a  material  deterioration  has  been 
detected  is  rejected  from  the  solera,  and  probably  fortified  with 
spirits,  or  distilled. 

THE    SOLERA    SYSTEM. 

The  distinctive  feature  in  the  production  of  sherry  is  the  solera, 
which  signifies  foundation,  and  means  old  wine  kept  in  casks, 
which  are  never  moved  as  long  as  the  solera  exists,  and  on  the 
foundation  of  which  younger  wines  are  reared. 

The  casks  are  arranged  in  groups,  piled  in  tiers,  and  the  groups 
into  scales.  The  distinctive  feature  of  the  system  is  a  series, 
commencing  with  a  very  old  wine,  followed  by  a  younger  one, 
and  so  on  down  the  scale  to  the  youngest,  so  that  when  wine  for 
blending  and  shipment  is  drawn  from  the  group  of  casks  consti- 
tuting the  oldest  solera,  they  are  replenished  from  the  group  of 
casks  of  the  next  younger  solera,  and  these  again  from  those  of 
the  next  younger,  and  so  on  through  the  scale,  thus  keeping  up 
the  characters  of  the  soleras. 

Establish  ina;  a  Solera. — The  following  from  the  address  of 


*  Vizitelli  says  the  arrope  is  mixed  with  nine  parts  of  rnu-t,  and  feru.ented  to  mako  the 
color,  but  theother  authors  say  "white  wine,"  instead  <jf  -must." 


SWEET  WINES.  121 

Mr.  Pohndorff  before  the  Viticultural  Convention  held  at  San 
Francisco  in  September,  1882,  gives  a  good  idea  of  how  to  estab- 
lish a  solera: 

Select  the  finest  wines  of  a  year's  vintage,  put  them  away  by 
themselves,  and  carefully  care  for  them  and  nurse  them  by  racking, 
etc.,  during  the  year.  The  next  year,  separate  the  finest  wines 
from  the  vintage,  always  leaving  ullage  in  the  casks  of  three  to  five 
gallons,  according  to  size,  and  the  bungs  loose,  simply  laid  over 
the  hole.  Go  on  in  this  way  for  five  years.  Now  a  fifth  of  this 
five-year-old  wine  may  be  drawn  off  for,  and  used  to  establish 
another  solera,  and  the  casks  refilled  from  the  four-year-old  wine, 
•  which,  of  course,  must  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same 
nature.  With  the  younger  wines,  you  may  do  the  same,  except 
those  of  one  and  two  years  old,  which  are  not  yet  soleras,  but 
young  wines.  You  have  then  a  solera  of  this  five-year-old  wine, 
which  is  one-fifth  four-year-old  wine,  and  this  may  be  called  the 
mother  solera.  At  the  end  of  ten  years  more,  you  can  say  that  you 
have  a  solera  fifteen  years  of  age;  though  during  the  period, 
you  have  drawn  off  periodically  a  small  portion  of  it  and  replaced 
it  with  the  next  younger,  always  providing  that  the  younger  wine 
is  similar,  for  this  quality  is  of  much  greater  importance  than 
the  difference  of  a  year  or  two  in  age,  for  wine  a  year  or  two 
younger  or  older,  if  of  the  same  kind,  will  not  injure  the  solera, 
but  its  character  may  be  destroyed  by  mixing  with  it  wine  of  a 
different  nature. 

A  solera,  then,  really  consists  of  a  mixture  of  wines  of  differ- 
ent years.  The  head  of  each  cask  is  inscribed  with  the  distin- 
guishing mark  of  its  solera,  and  the  number  of  butts  of  which 
it  is  composed. 

"The  Standard  Soleras,"  says.  Gen.  Keyes,  "are  those  from 
which  the  wine  is  drawn  for  shipment,  and  their  contents  have 
rested  in,  and  permeated  through,  a  series  of  groups  called  feed- 
ers"— a  solera  sometimes  dating  back  a  century,  it  is  said.  "  At 
every  stage  the  wine  is  graded,  so  that  the  best  young  wine  passes 
ultimately  into  the  oldest  and  highest  priced  solera.  When  there 
is  only  a  small  number  of  feeders,  say  two  or  three,  in  the  group 


122  SWEET  WINES. 

next  behind  the  standard  solera,  the  wine  ought  not  be  drawn  out 
for  shipment  oftener  than  twice  a  year;  but  when  there  are  many, 
say  twelve,  the  wine  for  shipment  may  be  drawn  out  every  two 
months.  To  make  myself  understood  in  this  complicated  process, 
I  must  explain  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  founded.  When 
wine  is  needed  for  shipment,  a  portion,  is  drawn  out  by  siphons 
from  the  standard  soleras.  The  amount  which  may  be  drawn 
out  with  safety,  and  the  kind  of  younger  wines  which  are  to 
replace  it  in  the  old  solera,  requires  great  skill  and  experience, 
and,  I  may  say,  a  natural  aptness  for  the  business.  The  end  in 
view  is.  to  draw  off  from  a  standard  solera  such  a  number  of 
gallons,  that,  being  replaced  by  an  equal  number  of  gallons  of 
the  younger  wines,  the  standard  of  the  solera  may  remain  intact. 
If  too  much  is  drawn  out,  or  if  it  is  replaced  from  the  wrong 
feeders,  the  standard  may  be  injured,  or  even  destroyed.  But  if 
the  proper  number  of  gallons  are  drawn  out  and  replaced  by  the 
right  sorts  from  the  other  casks,  the  old  solera  soon  transmutes 
the  younger  wines  to  its  standard,  the  bodega  retains  its  reputa- 
tation,  and  the  owner  grows  rich."  He  quotes  Mr.  Davis,  of 
Jerez,  as  follows:  "The  age  of  the  first  step  of  a  solera  scale 
depends  entirely  upon  the  character  and  price  of  the  oldest  grade 
of  that  particular  solera.  F.or  instance,  the  first  group  of  wine 
in  a  scale  of  six,  ending  in  a  medium  priced  sherry,  might  be 
two  years  old;  whereas,  the  first  group  of  wine  to  permeate 
through  a  scale  of,  say  four,  ending  in  a  wine  of  great  age  or 
value,  would,  perhaps,  require  to  be  fifteen  or  twenty  years  old. 
In  proportion  to  the  number  of  the  scale  behind  the  final  solera, 
so  is  the  frequency  with  which  the  wine  can  be  drawn  determined. 
In  a  scale  of  twelve,  the  final  solera  might  be  drawn,  perhaps, 
every  two  months.  In  a  scale  of  three  feeders,  perhaps  twice  a 
year." 

Blending  for  Shipment. — In  the  cellar  a  book  is  kept  in 
which  is  recorded  the  blend  of  each  shipment  made,  the  history 
of  the  shipment,  and  all  the  facts  necessary  to  its  identification, 
and  a  sample  bottle  of  every  shipment  is  also  preserved.  When  an 
order  is  received  for  a  quantity  of  wine  of  the  same  kind  as  a 


SWEET  WINES.  123 

former  shipment,  referance  is  made  to  the  blend  book,  and  recourse 
is  had  to  the  sample  bottle,  due  allowance  being  made  for  the 
bottle  flavor  acquired  by  the  sample,  and  the  blend  is  prepared 
accordingly,  the  necessary  quantity  being  taken  from  each  solera, 
of  which  there  are  many  in  a  shipping  bodega,  and  allowance  is 
also  made  for  the  change  that  may  have  occurred  in  the  solera  by 
replenishing.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  only  experience  and 
natural  aptitude  fit  a  man  for  this  delicate  operation. 

If  the  order  is  by  a  sample  whose  blend  is  not  known,  the 
sample  is  brought  into  the  tasting  office,  and  the  blend  glass 
brought  into  requisition.  It  is  a  graduated  glass  tube,  with 
forty  markings,  corresponding  to  the  number  of  jarras,  or  jars, 
which  a  butt  contains,  all  shipments  being  by  the  butt.  The 
shipping  butt  contains  130  gallons,  and  the  cask  for  storing  is 
about  20  gallons  larger. 

The  cellar-man  dips  out  and  puts  into  the  graduated  glass 
amounts  corresponding  to  the  number  of  jars  to  be  taken  from 
each  solera,  sweet  wine  being  added  for  sweetness,  and  color 
wine  for  color.  As  the  sugar  added  in  the  sweet  wine  would 
excite  fermentation,  sufficient  aguardiente,  spirit,  must  be  added 
to  bring  its  alcoholic  strength  up  to  at  least  18  per  cent. 

The  right  blend  having  been  ascertained,  it  is  left  for  a  while, 
and  tasted  once  or  twice  to  make  sure  that  it  is  correct.  If  it 
does  not  match  the  sample,  a  little  of  this  and  that  solera  is 
added  till  it  exactly  corresponds.  The  blend  is  then  entered  in 
the  blend  book,  which  gives  the  number  of  butts  required,  and 
the  amount  to  be  taken  from  each  solera.  The  book  is  then 
handed  in  to  the  bodega  for  the  execution  of  the  blend.  Sup- 
posing it  to  be  a  ten-butt  shipment,  ten  butts  are  brought  into 
the  cellar,  having  been  most  carefully  examined  and  rinsed  out 
with  spirit.  If  ten  jars  are  required  from  a  solera  of  fifty  butts, 
two  jars  would  be  drawn  from  each  of  the  fifty  butts  of  the 
solera,  and  put  into  the  ten  butts,  and  so  on  from  each  solera; 
whatever  the  number  of  butts  in  a  solera,  an  equal  quantity  of 
wine  is  drawn  from  each  cask. 

The  following  samples  of  blends  are  given  by  Verdad: 


124 


SWEET  WINES. 


ORDINARY    PALE    SHERRY. 


Pale  soleras, 
Fino  soleras, 
Vino  dulce, 
Aguardiente, 


Pale  soleras, 
Oloroso  soleras, 
Vino  de  color, 
Vino  dulce, 
Aguardiente,     - 


Pale  soleras, 
Oloroso, 
Vino  de  color, 
Vino  dulce, 
Aguardiente, 


ORDINARY  GOLDEN  SHERRY. 


ORDINARY  BROWN  SHERRY. 


20  jarras 
16   " 

3  " 

1  " 

40  jarras 

22  jarras 
8J  " 

2  " 
6   " 
U  " 

40  jarras 

23  jarras 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 

2   " 


40  jarras 

Fining. — After  the  blend  is  complete,  the  wine  is  fined  with 
the  whites  of  eggs  and  fuller's  earth,  a  kind  of  earth  found  at 
Lebrija,  near  Jerez,  and  called  Tierra  de  Lebrija.  For  a  butt  of 
wine,  a  handful  of  this  earth  is  made  into  a  paste  with  the  whites 
of  ten  eggs.  The  paste  is  thrown  into  the  cask,  and  the  wine  is 
stirred  in.  the  usual  manner.  (See  Fining.) 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  125 


CHAPTER;XV. 

DEFECTS    AND   DISEASES. 

These  are  Divided  by  Boireau  into  two  classes:  1.  Those 
defects  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  to  fertilizers  employed,  to 
bad  processes  in  wine  making,  and  to  the  abundance  of  common, 
poor  varieties  of  grapes.  It  is  evident  that  defects  of  this  class 
may  exist  in  the  wines  from  the  moment  when  they  leave  the  fer- 
menting vat,  or  the  press,  and  they  are  as  follows:  earthy  flavor, 
greenness,  roughness,  bitterness,  flavor  of  the  stems,  acidity, 
want  of  alcohol,  lack  of  color,  dull,  bluish,  leaden  color,  flavor  of 
the  lees,  and  tendency  to  putrid  decomposition.  2.  Those  vices 
which  wines  acquire  after  fermentation,  and  of  which  the  greater 
part  are  due  to  want  of  care,  or  uncleanness  of  the  casks,  and 
they  are:  flatness,  flowers,  acidity  (pricked  wine),  cask  flavor, 
mouldiness,  bad  flavors  communicated  by  the  accidental  intro- 
duction of  foreign  soluble  matters,  ropiness,  bitterness,  acrity, 
flavor  of  fermentation,  degeneracy,  and  putrid  fermentation. 

General  Considerations. — Before  entering  on  the  subject  of 
the  correction  and  cure  of  defects  and  diseases,  it  is  proper  to  say, 
that  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  malady  or  defect,  especially  if 
the  bad  taste  is  very  pronounced,  wine  once  hurt,  however  com- 
pletely cured  of  the  disease,  will  never  be  worth  as  much  as  a 
wine  of  the  same  nature  which  has  always  had  the  correct  flavor. 

It  is,  therefore,  wiser  and  more  prudent,  says  our  author,  to 
seek  to  prevent  the  maladies  of  wines,  than  to  wait  for  them  to 
become  diseased  in  order  to  cure  them. 

Of  course,  the  wine  maker  should  use  every  endeavor  to  remedy 
the  natural  defects  of  his  wines.  And  as  for  the  wine  merchant 
and  the  consumer,  they  should  reject  all  vitiated  wines,  unless 
they  can  be  used  immediately,  for  they  lose  quality  instead  of 
gaining  by  keeping. 

Moreover,  when  a  wine  has  a  very  pronounced  defect,  it  can 
rarely  be  used  alone,  either  because  deficient  in  spirit  or  in  color, 
or  because  the  vice  cannot  be  entirely  destroyed. 


126  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

It  would  also  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  flavor  of  a  dis- 
eased wine  would  be  rendered  inappreciable  by  mixing  and  dis- 
tributing it  throughout  a  large  number  of  casks  of  sound  wine; 
oftener  the  latter  would  be  more  or  less  injured  by  the  operation. 
The  defect  of  such  a  wine  should  first  be  removed  by  treating  it 
by  itself,  and  then  it  should  be  mixed  only  with  the  commonest 
wine  in  the  cellar. 

Each  defect  arid  disease  will  be  treated  under  its  proper  name, 
the  cause  indicated,  with  the  means  to  be  employed  to  prevent, 
diminish,  or  to  remove  it. 

The  doses  in  all  cases,  unless  otherwise  indicated,  are  according 
to  Mr.  Boireau,  who  gives  what  is  required  to  treat  225  litres, 
but  we  have  increased  the  ,dose  to  what  is  necessary  for  100 
gallons  of  wine  in  each  case. 

Any  one  can  first  try  the  experiment  on  a  gallon  or  less  by 
taking  a  proportional  amount  of  the  substances  indicated,  leav- 
ing the  sample  corked,  in  a  cool  place,  for  at  least  two  days  in 
ordinary  cases,  or  for  eight  days  in  case  the  wine  is  fined. 

NATURAL    DEFECTS. 

Earthy  Flavor — Its  Causes. — It  is  a  natural  defect  in  the 
wine,  and  consists  of  a  bad  taste  by  which  the  pulp  and  the  skins 
of  the  grapes  are  affected  before  fermentation.  It  occurs  in  wine 
made  from  grapes  grown  on  low,  wet,  swampy  land,  and  on  land 
too  heavily  manured,  or  fertilized  with  substances  which  commu- 
nicate a  bad  flavor.  He  says  that  this  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the^natural  flavor  and  bouquet  of  the  wine.  Contrary  to 
the  opinion  of  those  cenologues  who  attribute  this  defective  flavor 
to  the  presence  of  essential  oils,  he  believes  that  there  is  a  sensi- 
ble difference  between  the  natural  flavor  (seve)  and  the  earthy 
flavor.  In  fact,  the  flavor  and  bouquet  of  wines  made  from 
grapes  of  the  same  variety,  but  grown  in  different  vineyards, 
present  considerable  differences,  which  are  due  to  the  different 
natures  of  the  soils,  to  the  different  processes  in  wine  making, 
to  climate,  exposure,  age  of  the  wine,  etc.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  taste  and  odor  produced  by  the  natural  flavor  and  bouquet 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  127 

are  not  entirely  developed  till  the  wine  is  old,  and  the  clearing  is 
complete  ;  while  the  bad  taste  transmitted  from  the  soil  through 
the  sap,  instead  of  increasing  with  age,  diminishes,  and  often 
finally  disappears.  The  reason  is  thnt  this  taste  being  communi- 
cated principally  by  the  coloring  matters  of  the  skins,  diminishes 
with  the  deposit  of  these  matters,  according  as  the  wine  becomes 
clear.  It  follows  that  certain  wines  may  have  a  good  flavor,  and 
even  acquire  a  bouquet  in  aging,  which  while  young  had  a  dis- 
agreeable earthy  flavor. 

He  instances  the  wines  of  several  crops,  treated  by  him,  having 
a  fine  color,  mellowness,  and  10  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which  in 
their  early  years  had  an  earthy  flavor  so  pronounced  that  it  might 
almost  have  been  taken  for  a  mouldy  taste.  This  taste  dimin- 
ished gradually,  with  proper  care,  and  finally  disappeared  toward 
the  third  year;  the  natural  flavor  then  developed  itself,  and  the 
wines  acquired  an  agreeable  bouquet  in  bottles. 

Grapes  from  young  vines  planted  in  moist  land,  have  an  earthy 
flavor  more  pronounced  than  those  from  older  vines,  grown  in  the 
same  situations,  and  this  flavor  is  generally  more  developed  in 
the  heavy -yielding  common  varieties  than  in  the  fine  kinds. 

How  Prevented. — This  flavor  may  be  sometimes  diminished 
or  destroyed  by  draining  the  soil  of  the  vineyard,  aerating  the 
vines  when  too  crowded,  and  by  avoiding  the  planting  of  trees 
in  the  vineyard.  If  it  comes  from  too  much  manure,  less  should 
be  used,  and  less  wood  left  on  the  vines. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  draw  such  wines  from  the  fer- 
menting vat,  as  soon  as  the  active  fermentation  is  finished,  for  a 
long  sojourn  in  the  tank  with  the  stems  and  skins  aggravates  the 
defect. 

The  Treatment  of  wines  so  affected  differs  according  to  their 
origin,  their  nature,  and  their  promise  of  the  future;  but  the 
condition  necessary  in  all  cases  is  to  promptly  obtain  their  defe- 
cation or  clarification,  and  never  to  allow  them  to  remain  on  the 
lees.  They  should  therefore  be  drawn  off  as  soon  as  clear,  and 
frequently  racked  to  prevent  the  formation  of  voluminous  deposits. 


128  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

Red  wines,  which  in  spite  of  this  defect,  have  a  future,  and 
may  acquire  quality  with  age,  should  be  racked  at  the  beginning 
of  winter,  again  in  the  beginning  of  March,  and  after  the  second 
racking  should  be  fined  with  the  whites  of  12  eggs  to  100  gallons 
of  wine;  they  are  then  racked  again  two  weeks  after  fining. 

Common  red  wines,  without  a  future,  dull  and  poor  in  color, 
and  weak  in  spirit,  are  treated  in  the  same  manner,  but  before 
fining,  a  little  more  than  a  quart  of  alcohol  of  60  to  90  per  cent, 
is  added  to  facilitate  the  coagulation  of  the  albumen. 

In  treating  wines  which  are  firm,  full-bodied,  and  charged 
with  color,  after  the  two  rackings,  an  excellent  result  is  obtained 
by  an  energetic  fining  with  about  three  ounces  of  gelatine. 

Earthy  white  wines  should  be  racked  after  completing  their 
fermentation,  and  after  the  addition  of  about  an  ounce  of  tannin 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  or  the  equivalent  of  tannified  white  wine. 
After  racking,  they  should  be  fined  with  about  three  ounces  of 
gelatine. 

These  rackings  and  finings  precipitate  the  insoluble  matters, 
and  part  of  the  coloring  matter,  which  is  strongly  impregnated 
with  the  earthy  taste,  and  the  result  is  a  sensible  diminution  of 
the  flavor.  When  not  very  pronounced,  it  is  removed  little  by 
little  at  each  racking.  But  if  it  is  very  marked,  the  wine  after 
the  first  racking  should  have  a  little  less  than  a  quart  of  olive  oil 
thoroughly  stirred  into  it.  After  a  thorough  agitation,  the  oil 
should  be  removed  by  filling  the  cask.  The  oil  removes  with  it 
a  portion  of  those  matters  in  the  wine  which  cause  the  bad 
flavor.  The  wine  is  afterwards  fined  as  above. 

Some  writers  recommend  that  wine  having  an  earthy  flavor 
should  be  mixed  with  wine  of  a  better  taste,  as  the  best  method 
of  correcting  the  defect;  but  from  what  has  been  said  in  the 
preceding  part  of  this  chapter,  it  would  seem  to  be  an  unsafe 
practice . 

The  Wild  Taste  and  Grassy  Flavor  are  due  to  the  same 
causes,  and  are  removed  in  the  same  way. 

yiGreenness — Its  Causes. — This  is  due  to  the  presence  of  tartaric 
acid,  which  it  contains  in  excess.     It  gives  a  sour,  austere  taste 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  129 

to  the  wine,  which  also  contains  malic  acid,  but  in  a  less  quantity. 
When  tasted,  it  produces  the  disagreeable  sensation  of  unripe 
fruit  to  the  palate,  sets  the  teeth  on  edge,  and  contracts  the  ner- 
vous expansions  of  the  mouth. 

Greenness,  as  the  term  imports,  is  caused  by  want  of  maturity 
of  the  grapes.  We  all  know  that  acids  abound  in  unripe  fruit, 
and  it  is  only  at  the  time  of  maturity,  and  under  the  influence  of 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  that  they  disappear  and  are  changed  into 
glucose  or  grape  sugar. 

A  green  wine,  then,  is  an  imperfect  wine,  which,  besides  this 
defect,  generally  lacks  alcohol,  body,  mellowness,  firmness,  bou- 
quet, and  color,  because  the  incompletely  matured  grapes  contain 
much  tartaric  and  malic  acid,  and  but  little  grape  sugar  and  other 
mucilaginous  matter,  and  because  the  matters  destined  to  give 
color  to  the  skins,  as  well  as  the  aromatic  principles,  are  not 
completely  elaborated. 

The  only  way  to  Prevent  this  Defect  is  to  resort  to  means 
necessary  to  increase  the  maturity  of  the  grape,  or  to  add  sugar 
to  the  must,  neither  of  which  will  scarcely  ever  be  found  neces- 
sary in  California,  where  /  the  defect  is  not  likely  to  exist,  if  the 
grapes  are  not  picked  too  green. 

Treatment. —Where  the  sourness  is  not  insupportable,  the 
wine  may  be  ameliorated  by  adding  a  quart  or  two  of  old  brandy 
for  each  100  gallons. 

The  wine  as  it  comes  from  the  vat  contains  much  more  free 
tartaric  acid  than  it  contains  after  the  insensible  fermentation  in 
the  cask,  because  it  combines  with  the  tartrate  of  potash  in  the 
wine  and  forms  the  bitartrate  of  potash,  or  cream  of  tartar,  which 
is  deposited  with  the  lees,  or  attaches  itself  to  the  sides  of  the 
cask.  It  follows  that  the  wine  will  be  less  green  after  insensible 
fermentation,  at  the  first  racking,  than  when  it  was  new;  but  if 
the  greenness  is  excessive  after  the  insensible  fermentation,  the 
wine  still  contains  much  free  acid.  The  excess  of  acid  may  be 
neutralized  in  wines  which  are  very  green  by  adding  the  proper 
amount  of  tartrate  of  potash,  which  combines  with  a  part  of  the 
tartaric  acid  to  form  the  bitartrate,  which  after  a  few  days  falls 


130  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

to  the  bottom,  or  adheres  to  the  cask.  The  dose  varies  from  10  to 
24  ounces  per  100  gallons  of  wine.  Five  or  six  gallons  of  wine 
are  drawn  out  of  the  cask,  and  the  tartrate  of  potash  is  thrown 
in  by  the  handful,  stirring  the  while  as  in  the  case  of  fining. 
This  treatment  does  not  always  succeed;  hence,  the  necessity  of 
preventing  the  defect  when  possible. 

When  the  greenness  is  not  very  marked,  the  wine  may  also  be 
mixed  with  an  older  wine,  which  contains  but  little  acid  and 
plenty  of  spirit. 

Lime  and  other  alkaline  substances  will  surely  neutralize  the 
acid,  but  they  injure  the  wine  and  render  it  unhealthy,  and 
should  never  be  used. 

Machard  l«ys  great  stress  upon  the  addition  of  brandy  to  such 
wines,  because,  he  says,  the  alcohol  will  precipitate  the  excess  of 
acids,  and  will  also  combine  with  them  to  form  ethers  which  give 
a  delicate,  balsamic  odor  to  the  wine,  which  is  most  agreeable. 
(See  Ethers,  Bouquet.} 

Roughness  is  due  to  the  astringency  given  to  the  wine  by  the 
tannin  when  in  excess.  Tannin  is  useful  for  the  preservation 
and  the  clarification  of  wines,  and  those  which  contain  much, 
with  an  equal  amount  of  alcohol,  keep  much  longer  than  those 
which  contain  less,  and  undergo  transportation  better,  and  are 
considered  more  healthful. 

Roughness  is  Not  a  Fault,  it  is  rather  an  excess  of  good 
quality,  if  the  rough  wines  have  no  after-taste  of  the  stems,  bit- 
terness, earthy  flavor,  acrity,  and  possess  a  high  degree  of  spirit, 
a  fruity  flavor,  and  a  good  color.  Such  wines  are  precious  for 
fortifying,  and  to  assist  in  aging  those  which  are  too  feeble  to 
keep  a  long  time  without  degenerating.  When  kept  without 
cutting,  they  last  a  long  time,  and  end  well.  But  they  are  long 
in  developing. 

The  Roughness  Disappears  in  Time,  because  the  tannin  is 
transformed  into  gallic  acid,  and  besides  is  precipitated  by  other 
principles  contained  in  the  wine,  and  by  finings. 

An  Excess  of  Tannin  is  Avoided  in  strong,  dark-colored, 
full-bodied  wines  by  removing  all  the  stems,  and  by  early  drawing 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  131 

from  the  tank.  If  the  wines  are  inclined  to  be  soft,  weak,  and 
with  but  little  spirit,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  avoid  rough- 
ness. 

When  wines  are  put  into  new  casks,  their  roughness  is  increased 
by  the  tannin  derived  from  the  oak  wood  of  which  they  are  madeJ 
but  during  insensible  fermentation  a  good  deal  of  the  tannin  is 
thrown  down  with  the  vegetable  albumen  contained  in  the  new 
wine. 

How  Removed. — If  the  wines  are  of  good  body  and  color,  the 
roughness  may  be  removed  by  fining  them  with  a  strong  dose  of 
gelatine,  two  or  three  ounces  to  100  gallons.  As  this  removes  a 
portion  of  the  color,  it  should  only  be  resorted  to  in  the  case  of 
rough  and  dark-colored  wines,  to  hasten  their  maturity. 

Bitterness  and  Taste  of  the  Stems — Causes. — Bitterness  is 
a  disagreeable  taste  which,  in  new  wines  attacked  by  it,  comes 
from  the  dissolution  of  a  bitter  principle  contained  in  the  stems, 
a  principle  entirely  different  from  tannin.  Sometimes  it  is  com- 
municated by  the  skins  of  certain  varieties  of  grapes. 

This  is  Prevented  by  allowing  the  grapes  to  reach  complete 
maturity,  and  above  all  by  stemming  them  all,  and  by  not  leaving 
the  wine  too  long  in  the  fermenting  vat. 

The  Treatment  is  the  same  as  for  the  earthy  flavor,  and  also 
afterwards  pouring  in  a  quart  or  more  of  old  brandy. 

The  bitterness  here  mentioned  is  only  that  met  with  in  new 
wines,  and  its  cause  is  entirely  different  from  that  found  in  old 
wines,  which  is  described  further  on. 

The  Taste  of  the  Stems,  which  often  accompanies  bitterness, 
is  due  to  a  prolonged  immersion  of  the  stems  in  the  wine.  It  is 
supposed  that  this  defect,  which  gives  the  wine  a  wild  and  com- 
mon liavor,  comes  from  an  aromatic  principle  contained  in  the 
stems.  It  is  prevented  by  stemming,  and  like  natural  bitterness, 
diminishes  with  time.  The  treatment  is  the  same. 

An  unreasonably  long  vatting  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
bitterness  and  stem  flavor. 


132  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

Sourness  —  Its  Causes. — Sourness,  or  heated  flavor,  as  it  is 
also  called,  is  due  to  the  presence  of  acetic  acid  in  the  wine.  All 
wines,  even  the  mellowest,  the  best  made,  and  the  best  cared  for, 
contain  some  acetic  acid,  but  in  so  small  a  quantity  as  to  be 
inappreciable  to  the  taste.  Acetic  acid  is  produced  in  wines 
during  their  fermentation  in  open  tanks,  and  is  due  to  the  con- 
tact of  the  air  with  the  crust  of  the  pomace.  This  crust  or  cap, 
formed  of  skins  and  stems,  brought  to  the  surface  by  bubbles 
of  carbonic  a'cid  rising  from  the  liquid,  is  exposed  directly  to  the 
air,  and  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  the  liquid  part  is  soon 
completed,  and  under  the  influence  of  the  air  and  ferments,  the 
alcohol  is  transformed  into  acetic  acid.  This  transformation  is 
so  rapid  that  when  the  vatting  is  too  prolonged,  and  the  tempera- 
ture is  high,  the  exterior  crust  rapidly  passes  from  acetic  to 
putrid  fermentation. 

As  long  as  the  tumultuous  fermentation  continues,  the  crust  is 
kept  up  above  the  surface  by  the  bubbles  of  rising  gas,  but  when 
it  ceases,  the  cap  falls,  and  settles  down  into  the  liquid,  and  the 
wine  becomes  impregnated  with  .the  acetic  acid.  The  wine  also, 
by  simple  contact  with  the  crust,  acquires  a  vinegar  smell  and 
taste. 

Wines  which  become  pricked  by  contact  with  the  air  after 
fermentation  are  treated  further  on  under  the  head  of  Pricked 
Wines. 

How  Prevented. — The  formation  of  acetic  acid  during  fer- 
mentation is  prevented  by  fermenting  the  wines  in  closed  or 
partly  closed  vats,  by  avoiding  contact  of  the  air,  by  keeping  the 
pomace  submerged,  and  by  confining  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
vat.  If  open  vats  are  used,  they  should  be  only  three-fourths 
full,  so  that  a  layer  of  gas  may  rest  upon  the  pomace  and  protect 
it  from  the  atmosphere;  or  the  cap  may  be  covered  with  a  bed 
of  straw  as  soon  as  formed.  Care  should  be  taken  to  draw  off  as 
soon  as  fermentation  is  complete. 

Treatment. — Wines  affected  in  this  manner  cannot  be  expected 
to  acquire  good  qualities  with  age.  They  may  be  rendered  pota- 
ble, but  their  future  is  destroyed.  Therefore,  every  precaution 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  133 

should  be  taken  to  guard  against  the  defect.  They  should  be 
separated  from  their  first  lees  as  soon  as  possible;  consequently, 
they  should  be  drawn  off  as  soon  as  the  gas  ceases  to  rise.  If 
they  are  still  turbid,  they  should  be  clarified  by  an  energetic 
fining,  and  they  should  be  racked  from  the  finings  the  very 
moment  they  are  clear.  They  should  be  afterwards  racked  to 
further  free  them  from  ferments.  If  the  wines  are  only  heated, 
the  odor  of  acetic  acid  will  be  sensibly  diminished  by  the  above 
operation;  but  if  they  are  decidedly  pricked,  the  means  to  neu- 
tralize their  acid  when  drawn  from  the  vat,  as  indicated  for 
Pricked  Wines,  should  be  resorted  to. 

Alcoholic  Weakness  is  due  to  a  want  of  sufficient  spirit,  caused 
by  an  excess  of  water  of  vegetation,  and  the  consequent  lack  of 
sugar  in  the  grapes.  In  France  this  defect  is  generally  found  in 
wines  coming  from  young  vines  planted  in  very  fertile  soils,  or 
from  the  common  varieties,  pruned  with  long  canes,  and  pro- 
ducing a  great  quantity  of  large,  watery  grapes.  When  wines 
weak  in  alcohol  contain  but  little  tannin  and  color,  they  rapidly 
degenerate,  often  commencing  their  decline  during  their  first 
year,  and  before  their  clarification  is  completed. 

How  Avoided. — This  defect  can  be  corrected  by  planting  the 
proper  varieties  of  vines,  and  by  avoiding  rich  soils;  but  in  the 
climate  of  California  there  is  but  little  danger  of  the  wines  being 
too  weak,  unless  the  grapes  are  late  varieties,  and  grown  in  very 
unfavorable  situations. 

The  Treatment  of  weak  wines  is  to  rid  them  of  their  ferments 
as  soon  as  possible,  in  order  to  avoid  acid  and  putrid  degenera- 
tion, to  which  they  are  quite  subject.  This  result  is  obtained  by 
drawing  them  off  as  soon  as  the  lees  are  deposited.  If  they 
remain  turbid  after  the  second  racking,  they  should  be  gently 
fined  with  the  whites  of  nine  or  ten  eggs  to  100  gallons.  The 
coagulation  of  the  albumen  will  be  facilitated  by  adding  one  or 
more  quarts  of  strong  alcohol  to  the  wine  before  fining,  and  by 
adding  to  the  eggs  a  handful  of  common  salt  dissolved  in  a  little 
water.  But  as  these  wines,  by  themselves,  are  short  lived,  it  is 


134  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

necessary,  in  order  to  prolong  their  existence,  to  mix  them  with 
firm  wines,  strong  in  body  and  rich  in  color.  By  adding  alcohol, 
they  are  still  left  dry  and  without  fruity  flavor,  while  if  mixed 
with  a  wine  of  a  flavor  as  nearly  like  their  own  as  possible,  and 
having  a  fruity  flavor,  and  being  firm  and  full-bodied,  but  not 
fortified,  they  will  acquire  mellowness  as*well  as  strength. 

Want  Of  Color — Causes. — As  coloring  matter  is  not  found  in 
the  skins  of  grapes  till  they  are  ripe,  green  wines  produced  in 
years  when  the  grapes  do  not  ripen  well,  lack  color. 

The  amount  of  color  may  be  diminished  if  by  excess  of  maturity 
the  skins  of  the  grapes  decay. 

The  method  of  fermentation  also  influences  more  or  less  the 
richness  of  the  color.  Those  wines,  in  the  fermentation  of  which 
the  pomace  is  kept  constantly  immersed  in  the  liquid,  dissolve 
out  more  coloring  matter  than  those  fermented  in  open  vats  in 
which  the  crust  is  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  must. 

Some  kinds  of  grapes  naturally  develop  more  color  than 
others. 

How  Guarded  Against. — It  is  therefore  obvious,  that  the  lack 
of  color  may  be  guarded  against  by  gathering  the  grapes  when 
they  are  just  ripe,  planting  the  proper  varieties,  and  keeping  the 
pomace  submerged  during  fermentation,  stirring  it  up,  if  neces- 
sary. 

The  Treatment  should  be  such  as  to  avoid  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  precipitation  of  the  coloring  matter.  They  should, 
therefore,  be  fined  as  little  as  possible,  and  gelatine  should  be 
carefully  avoided.  If  they  must  be  fined,  use  the  whites  of  eggs 
and  in  the  quantity  mentioned  for  weak  wines — 10  to  100  gallons. 

Of  course,  their  color  may  be  increased  by  mixing  them  with 
darker  colored  wines,  but  in  order  not  to  affect  their  natural 
flavor,  they  should  be  mixed  only  with  wines  of  the  same  nature 
and  of  the  same  growth. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  any  one  will  resort  to  artificial 
coloring  of  any  kind. 

Dull,  Bluish,  Lead-colored  Wine,  and  Flavor  of  the  Lees- 
Causes. — Certain  wines  remain  turbid,  and  preserve  a  dull, 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

leaden-color,  even  after  insensible  fermentation.  This  st 
be  due  to  several  causes.  Oftentimes  young  wines  remain  turbid 
because,  for  want  of  racking  at  proper  times,  and  for  want  of 
storing  in  proper  places,  secondary  fermentation  has  set  in,  which 
has  stirred  up  the  lees  which  had  been  deposited  at  the  bottom 
of  the  cask.  This  also  takes  place  when  new  wines  are  moved 
before  racking. 

Treatment. — In  these  cases,  put  them  into  a  cellar  of  a  con- 
stant temperature,  leave  them  quiet  for  a  couple  of  weeks,  and 
see  if  they  settle  naturally.  If  not,  clarify  them  by  using  the 
finings  appropriate  to  their  nature. 

If  they  are  turbid  on  account  of  an  unseasonable  fermentation, 
the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  stop  the  working  by  racking,  sulphur- 
ing, etc.  When,  in  spite  of  all  the  cares  that  have  been  bestowed 
upon  them,  they  still  remain  dull  and  difficult  to  clarify,  while 
undergoing  no  fermentation,  the  cause  must  be  sought  in  the 
want  of  tannin  or  alcohol. 

If  the  difficulty  is  due  simply  to  lack  of  spirit,  the  treatment 
consists  in  adding  two  or  three  quarts  of  strong  alcohol  to  each 
100  gallons,  mixing  with  the  wine  a  fifth  or  a  tenth  of  a  good-bod- 
ied wine  of  like  natural  flavor,  and  then  by  fining  it  with  eggs  as 
mentioned  for  weak  wines. 

If  the  dull  wine  has  sufficient  alcohol,  as  shown  by  a  pro- 
nounced color,  add  about  an  ounce  of  tannin  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  or  the  equivalent  of  tannified  wine,  and  fine  it  with 
one  to  two  ounces  of  gelatine . 

Bluish  or  violet  color,  accompanied  by  a  flavor  of  the  lees, 
often  occurs  in  wines  of  southern  countries,  and  is  due  to  an 
abundance  of  coloring  matter  and  a  lack  of  tartaric  acid.  When 
the  violet-colored  wine  has  a  good  deal  of  color,  and  more  than 
nine  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  color  may  be  changed  to  red  by 
mixing  with  it  from  one-sixth  to  one-fourth  of  green  wine,  which 
contains  an  excess  of  tartaric  acid,  the  natural  blue  color  of  the 
grape  being  changed  to  red  by  the  action  of  the  acid;  then  about 
an  ounce  of  tannin,  or  the  equivalent  of  tannified  wine,  should 
be  added,  that  the  color  may  become  fixed,  and  that  clarification 


136  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

may  subsequently  take  place  in  a  proper  manner.  In  default  of 
green  wine,  crystalized  tartaric  acid  may  be  used,  which  is  very 
soluble  in  wine.  A  small  amount  should  be  first  experimented 
with,  in  order  to  learn  just  how  much  to  use  to  change  the  blue 
of  the  wine  to  red,  for  we  must  not  forget  that  this  acid  gives 
greenness  to  the  wine  and  thereby  renders  it  less  healthful. 

If  the  wines  are  so  weak  in  alcohol  that  they  have  but  little 
color,  and  that  is  blue  and  dull,  they  have  a  tendency  to 
putridity.  In  this  case,  the  blue  color  is  in  fact  only  a  com- 
mencement of  decomposition.  It  is  due  to  an  internal  reaction 
which  transforms  a  part  of  the  tartrate  of  potash  into  carbonate 
of  potash.  Such  wines  have  a  slightly  alkaline  flavor,  and  left  to 
themselves  in  contact  with  the  air,  they  become  rapidly  corrupt, 
without  completely  acidifying.  These  wines  are  of  the  poorest 
quality.  This  disease,  which  is  very  rare,  may  be  prevented  by 
using  the  proper  methods  of  vinification,  and  by  rendering  them 
firmer  and  full-bodied  by  the  choice  of  good  varieties  of  vines. 
In  the  treatment  of  such  wines,  some  propose  the  use  of  tartaric 
acid  to  restore  them.  This  will  turn  the  blue  color  to  red,  but 
will  not  prevent  the  threatened  decomposition.  Mr.  Boireau 
prefers  the  use  of  about  one-sixth  of  green  wine,  which  contains 
an  abundance  of  the  acid,  and  the  subsequent  mixing  with  a 
strong,  full-bodied  wine. 

Putrid  Decomposition— Causes. — Wines  are  decomposed  and 
become  putrid,  on  account  of  little  spirituous  strength  and  lack 
of  tannin.  The  weakness  in  alcohol  is  due  to  want  of  sufficient 
sugar  in  the  grapes — to  the  excess  of  water  of  vegetation.  We 
see,  then,  that  wine  is  predisposed  to  putridity  when  it  is  wanting 
in  these  two  conservative  principles,  alcohol  and  tannin.  Such 
wine  quickly  loses  its  color;  it  never  becomes  brilliant  and  limpid; 
it  remains  turbid,  and  never  clears  completely,  but  continues  to 
deposit.  The  tendency  to  decomposition  is  announced  by  a 
change  of  color,  which  becomes  tawny  and  dull,  which  gives  it, 
though  young,  an  appearance  of  worn-o\it,  turbid,  old  wine. 
Its  red  color  is  in  great  part  deposited,  and  it  retains  only  the 
yellow.  If  the  defect  is  not  promptly  remedied  by  fortifying,  it 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  137 

acquires  a  nauseous,  putrid  flavor  of  stagnant  water;  and  it  con- 
tinues turbid,  and  is  decomposed,  without  going  squarely  into 
acetous  fermentation. 

How  Avoided. — To  avoid  this  tendency,  which  is  rare,  means 
should  be  employed  to  increase  the  natural  sugar  in  the  must, 
and  by  planting  proper  varieties  of  grapes,  which  will  produce 
good,  firm  wines,  and  by  choosing  proper  situations  for  the  vine- 
yard, and  employing  the  best  methods  of  vinification. 

Treatment. — Decomposition  may  be  retarded  in  several  ways: 
First,  by  fortifying  the  wines,  by  adding  tannin  to  them,  and  by 
adding  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rough,  firm,  alcoholic  wine; 
second,  in  default  of  a  strong,  full-bodied  wine,  brandy  may  be 
added,  or  better,  the  tannin  prepared  with  alcohol,  so  as  to  give 
them  a  strength  of  at  least  ten  per  cent.;  third,  fining  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  especially  the  use  of  finings  which 
precipitate  the  coloring  matter,  such  as  gelatine;  albumen  should 
be  used  in  preference,  as  for  weak  wines;  fourth,  the  movements 
of  long  journeys,  and  drawing  off  by  the  use  of  pumps,  should  be 
avoided,  for  they  are  apt  to  increase  the  deposition  of  the  color- 
ing matter. 

The  treatment  mentioned  will  retard  the  decomposition,  but 
will  not  arrest  it,  and  such  wines  can  never  endure  a  long  voyage 
unless  heavily  brandied. 

Several  Different  Natural  Yices  and  Defects  may  attack  the 
same  wine,  when  it  should  be  treated  for  that  which  is  most 
prominent. 

ACQUIRED    DEFECTS    AND     DISEASES. 

Flat  Wine— Flowers— Causes. — Flowers  of  wine  are  nothing 
but  a  kind  of  mould,  in  the  form  of  a  whitish  scum  or  film,  com- 
posed of  microscopic  fungi,  the  mycoderma  vini  and  mycoderma 
aceti,  already  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Fermentation,  and 
which  develop  on  the  surface  of  wine  left  in  contact  with  the 
air.  This  mould,  or  mother,  communicates  to  the  wine  a  dis- 
agreeable odor  and  flavor,  and  also  a  slight  acidity,  which  the 


138  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

French  call  event  odor,  or  flavor  evenle,  and  which  may  be  called 
flatness.  The  development  of  these  organisms  is  due  principally 
to  the  direct  exposure  of  the  wine  to  the  air,  which  favors  their 
growth  by  the  evaporation  of  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  which 
exists  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  which  is  exposed,  and  a  com- 
mencement of  oxidation  of  that  which  remains.  The  result  is 
that  the  surface  of  the  wine  becomes  very  weak  in  alcohol,  and 
having  lost  its  conservative  principle,  it  moulds.  This  mould 
consists,  as  before  remarked,  of  a  vast  number  of  small  fungi. 
They  have  a  bad  flavor,  and  are  impregnated  with  an  acidity 
which  comes  from  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  upon  the 
alcohol,  converting  it  into  acetic  acid. 

This  disease  develops  more  or  less  rapidly,  according  to  the 
alcoholic  strength  of  the  wine  and  the  temperature  of  the  place 
where  it  is  kept.  Those  common,  weak  wines,  which  have  only 
from  7  to  S£  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  are  the  first  attacked;  on  them 
flowers  are  developed  in  three  or  four  days.  Stronger  wines, 
which  contain  from  10  to  11  per  cent,  of  spirit,  resist  twice  as 
long  as  the  weaker  ones.  Fine  wines  of  an  equal  strength  resist 
better  than  the  common  kinds;  and  wines  which  contain  more 
than  15  per  cent,  are  not  affected.  During  summer  they  are 
much  sooner  affected. 

Machard  is  of  the  opinion  that  this  flavor  is  due  to  the  com- 
mencement of  disorganization  of  the  ferments  remaining  in  the 
wine,  which,  as  they  begin  to  putrify,  give  off  ammoniacal  ema- 
nations. Maumene  says  that  it  is  due  to  the  loss  of  carbonic 
acid. 

To  Prevent  Flatness,  all  agree  that  wines  should  be  pro- 
tected from  the  air;  for  this  purpose  they  should  be  kept  in  casks 
constantly  full,  or  in  well  corked  bottles  lying  in  a  horizontal 
position..  When  it  is  necessary  to  leave  ullage  in  the  cask,  a 
sulphur  match  must  be  burned,  and  the  cask  tightly  bunged. 
(  See  General  Treatment,  Wine  in  Bottles,  Sulphuring,  etc. ) 

In  frequently  drawing  from  the  cask,  the  deterioration  is 
retarded  by  taking  care  to  admit  the  least  possible  amount  of 
air,  just  enough  to  let  the  wine  run,  but  the  evil  cannot  be 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  139 

entirely  prevented  in  this  way;  and  by  frequent  sulphuring  the 
wine  will  acquire  a  disagreeable  sulphur  flavor;  therefore,  ullage 
should  never  be  left  when  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it. 

Treatment. — When  the  wines  show  flowers,  but  have  not  yet 
become  flat,  as  in  the  case  of  new  wines  which  have  been  neg- 
lected, and  have  not  been  filled  up  for  a  week  or  more,  and  are 
only  affected  at  the  surface,  by  filling  up,  the  flowers  may  be 
caused  to  flow  out  at  the  bung.  The  cask  must  then  be  well 
bunged.  It  must  afterwards  be  kept  well  filled,  for  besides  the 
flat  flavor  that  the  flowers  may  give  the  wine,  they  will  render  it 
turbid  on  account  of  the  acid  ferments  introduced,  and  cause  it 
to  become  pricked  in  the  end. 

Wine  badly  flowered,  and  which  has  acquired  a  decided  flavor 
of  flatness,  without  being  actually  sour,  should  be  filled  up,  and 
the  flowers  should  be  allowed  to  pass  out  of  the  bung;  it  should 
then  be  racked  into  a  well  sulphured  cask,  which  must  be  com- 
pletely filled.  The  flowers  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  mixed 
with  the  wine.  After  racking,  two  or  three  quarts  of  old  brandy 
to  each  100  gallons  should  be  added,  or  a  few  gallons  of  firm, 
full-bodied  wine,  as  near  as  possible  of  the  same  natural  flavor. 
It  should  then  be  well  fined,  using  in  preference  the  whites  of 
eggs  (one  dozen  for  100  gallons,  and  a  handful  of  salt  dissolved 
in  a  little  water),  and  then  it  must  be  racked  again  as  soon  as 
clear. 

The  object  of  this  treatment  is  to  extract  from  the  wine  by 
racking  the  mould  which  causes  the  bad  taste;  to  replace  by  for- 
tifying, the  alcohol  lost  by  evaporation;  and  finally,  by  fining,  to 
remove  in  the  lees  the  acid  ferments,  which  have  developed  in 
the  form  of  flowers. 

Yet  those  wines  which  have  become  badly  affected  through 
negligence  are  never  completely  restored,  and  if  they  are  fine, 
delicate  wines,  they  lose  a  large  part  of  their  value.  Therefore, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  this  disease,  which  in  the 
end  produces  acidity,  for,  often,  neglected  wines  are  at  the  same 
time  flat  and  pricked. 

Some  authors  recommend  that  such  a  wine  should  be  again 


140  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

mixed  with  a  good,  sound,  fresh  pomace,  which  has  not  been  long 
in  the  vat,  and  allowed  to  ferment  a  second  time;  this  is  called 
passing  it  over  the  marc.  Of  course,  this  can  only  be  done  in  the 
wine  making  season,  and  cannot  be  resorted  to  by  those  who  do 
not  make  wine  themselves,  or  who  are  at  a  distance  from  a  wine 
maker. 

When  all  else  fails,  they  recommend  that  several  large  pieces 
of  dry,  fresh  charcoal  be  suspended  in  the  wine,  attached  to 
cords  to  draw  them  out  by,  Maigne  says,  for  forty-eight  hours, 
and  Machard  says,  one  or  two  weeks,  renewing  the  charcoal  from 
time  to  time  till  the  taste  is  removed. 

If  the  wine  has  already  become  acid,  charcoal  will  not  remove 
the  flavor.  •  ; 

Sourness,  Acidity,  Pricked  Wine— Causes.— Acidity  is  a  sour 
taste  caused  by  the  alcohol  of  the  wine  being  in  part  changed  to 
acetic  acid  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  It  is  due  to  long  contact 
with  the  air,  and  it  is  the  oxygen  which  produces  the  change,  as 
described  under  the  head  of  Acetic  Fermentation,  and  it  is  the 
more  rapid,  according  as  the  temperature  is  more  elevated,  and 
the  wine  contains  more  ferments. 

What  Wines  Liable  to. — All  'wines  whose  fermentation  is 
completed,  and  which  have  been  fermented  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances— that  is,  those  which  have  received  no  addition  of 
alcohol,  and  no  longer  contain  saccharine  matter,  are  subject  to 
this  affection  when  left  exposed  to  the  air. 

When  they  have  been  fortified  up  to  18  per  cent,  of  alcohol, 
whether  sweet  or  not,  they  do  not  sour  until  the  alcohol  has  been 
enfeebled  by  evaporation. 

If  they  contain  sugar,  although  not  fortified,  a  new  fermenta- 
tion takes  place,  and  they  do  not  acidify  until  the  greater  part  of 
the  sugar  has  been  transformed  into  alcohol.  Machard,  how- 
ever, says  that  wines  which  contain  a  good  deal  of  sugar  do  often 
acidify,  and  in  the  experience  of  others,  there  is  a  continuous 
fermentation,  which  renders  them  very  liable  to  become  pricked. 

As  the  acetic  acid  is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  alcohol,  the 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  141 

more  the  wine  contains  of  the  former  the  less  will  it  have  of  the 
latter. 

Acidity  is  Prevented  by  giving  wines  proper  care  and  atten- 
tion, and  by  keeping  them  in  suitable  places,  and  by  using  the 
precautions  indicated  for  flat  or  flowered  wines,  i.e.,  by  avoiding 
long  contact  with  the  air.  Flowers  are  the  forerunners  of  acidity; 
yet  they  do  not  always  appear  before  the  wine  is  pricked,  espe- 
cially if  the  temperature  is  elevated,  and  the  alcoholic  strength 
considerable.  In  general,  wines  become  pricked  without  pro- 
ducing flowers  when  they  are  exposed  to  the  air  at  a  temperature 
of  77°  to  100°  F.;  acidity  is  produced  under  these  conditions  in 
a  very  rapid  manner;  and  this  is  why  extra  precautions  should 
be  taken  during  hot  weather.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
thisvicecom.es  either  from  the  negligence  of  the  cellar-man  to  guard 
the  wines  from  contact  with  the  air,  or  from  the  bad  slate  of  the 
casks,  and  storing  in  unsuitable  places. 

Treatment. — Acetic  acid  in  wine  may  be  in  great  part  neutral- 
ized by  several  alkaline  substances;  but,  if  used,  there  remain 
in  solution  in  the  wine  certain  salts  ( acetates  and  tartrates)  formed 
by  the  combination  of  the  acetic  and  tartaric  acid  with  the  alka- 
line bases  introduced.  These  alkaline  substances  not  only  neu- 
tralize the  acetic  acid,  but  also  the  vegetable  acids  contained  in 
the  wine.  These  neutral  salts  are  not  perfectly  wholesome,  being 
generally  laxative  in  their  nature.  Moreover,  the  acetic  acid  can- 
not be  completely  neutralized  by  the  employment  of  caustic  alka- 
lies (potash,  soda,  quicklime),  and  these  bases  decompose  the 
wine  and  cause  the  dissolution  and  precipitation  of  the  coloring 
matter,  and  render  it  unfit  to  drink  by  reason  of  the  bitterness 
which  they  communicate.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  choose 
for  the  treatment  of  pricked  wines,  those  alkaline  matters  which 
are  the  most  likely  to  neutralize  the  excess  of  acetic  acid  without 
altering  the  constitution  of  the  wine,  without  precipitating  their 
color,  and  which  produce  by  combination  the  least  soluble  and 
least  unwholesome  salts. 

Those  which  should  be  employed  in  preference  to  others  are, 
carbonate  of  magnesium,  tartrate  of  potassium,  and  lime  water. 


142  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

The  following  substances  should  only  be  employed  when  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  those  last  mentioned,  for  the  reason  that  the 
salts  remaining  in  solution  in  the  wine  may  cause  loss  of  color, 
and  even  decomposition,  if  used  in  large  doses,  i.  e.,wood  ashes 
(ashes  from  vine  cuttings  being  preferred  as  containing  much 
of  the  salts  of  potash);  powdered  chalk  and  marble  (composed 
of  the  subcarbonates  of  lime,  marble  dust  being  the  purer); 
solutions  of  the  sub-carbonates  of  potash,  and  of  the  subcar- 
bonate  of  soda,  and  plaster. 

In  Using  the  Substances,  it  is  always  best  to  experiment  with 
a  small  quantity  of  wine,  being  careful  to  employ  a  dose  propor- 
tioned to  the  extent  of  the  degree  of  acidity.  Thus,  to  a  quart 
of  wine  add  15  or  20  grains  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  (1  or  2 
grammes  per  litre),  little  by  little,  shaking  the  bottle  the  while; 
again,  but  only  when  the  wine  is  badly  pricked,  slack  a  suitable 
quantity  of  quicklime  in  water,  and  let  it  settle  till  the  surface 
water  becomes*  clear.  Then  add  to  the  wine  which  has  already 
received  the  carbonate  of  magnesia,  5  or  6  fluidrams  of  the  lime 
water  (2  centilitres),  and  shake  the  mixture;  then  pour  in  2  or  3 
fluidrams  of  alcohol  (1  centilitre),  and  finally  clarify  it  with 
albumen,  using  fresh  milk  in  preference,  from  1^  to  3  fluidrams 
to  a  quart  (i  to  1  centilitre  to  a  litre);  cork  the  bottle,  shake  it 
well,  and  let  it  rest  for  three  or  four  days,  when  by  comparing 
the  sample  treated  with  the  pricked  wine,  the  effect  will  be  seen. 

This  treatment  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  wine.  If 
it  is  green  and  pricked,  add  15  grains  (1  gramme  per  litre)  of 
tartrate  of  potassium  to  the  magnesia;  and  if  the  wine  has  a  dull 
color,  after  having  added  the  milk,  put  in  about  3  grains  (22 
centigrammes)  of  gelatine  dissolved  in  about  a  fluidram  (5  centi- 
litre) of  water;  if  the  wine  is  turbid  and  hard  to  clarify,  add  a 
little  more  than  a  grain  (8  centigrammes)  of  tannin  in  powder, 
before  putting  in  the  milk  and  gelatine. 

Of  course,  the  same  proportion  should  be  used  in  operating 
upon  a  larger  quantity  of  wine. 

If  carbonate  of  magnesium,  which  is  preferable  to  all  others, 
cannot  be  obtained,  the  dose  of  lime  water  may  be  doubled,  and 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  143 

in  default  of  lime,  powdered  chalk,  or  marble  and  vine  ash  may 
be  used,  but  with  great  prudence,  and  in  smaller  proportions,  or 
solutions  of  the  sub-carbonates  of  potash  and  soda.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  as  to  the  quantity  of  the  latter  used,  and 
they  should  not  be  employed  in  treating  wine  slightly  attacked. 

Mr.  Boireau  prefers  the  carbonate  of  magnesium  to  any  other 
alkaline  substance,  because  it  affects  the  color  less,  and  does  not 
give  bitterness  to  the  pricked  wines,  nor  render  them  unwhole- 
some, as  do  the  salts  formed  by  alkalies  with  a  potash,  lime,  or 
soda  base.  In  medicine,  carbonate  of  magnesium  is  used  to  cor- 
rect sourness  of  the  stomach  (so  also,  we  might  add,  is  carbonate 
of  sodium).  For  the  same  reason,  decanted  lime  water  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  sub-carbonate  of  lime,  employed  in  the  form  of 
marble  dust  and  powdered  chalk;  nevertheless,  lime  water  in 
large  doses  makes  a  wine  weak  and  bitter. 

Brandy  is  added  to  these  wines  in  order  to  replace  the  alcohol 
lost  in  the  production  of  acetic  acid.  The  preference  given  to 
milk  for  fining  is  founded  upon  the  fact  that  it  is  alkaline,  and 
therefore  assists  in  removing  the  acid  flavor  of  the  wine  while 
clarifying  it.  It  is  alkaline,  however,  only  when  it  is  fresh; 
skim-milk  a  day  old  is  acid,  and  should  not  be  used.  Finally, 
the  tartrate  and  carbonate  of  potassium  employed  to  treat  green 
and  pricked  wines,  are  used  to  neutralize  the  tartaric  acid,  and 
gelatine  and  tannin  to  facilitate  the  clarification  and  the  precipi- 
tation of  acid  ferments. 

Wines  whose  acid  has  been  neutralized  should  be  clarified,  and 
then  racked  as  soon  as  perfectly  clear,  according  to  the  methods 
pointed  out. 

The  acetic  acid  being  formed  at  the  expense  of  alcohol,  the 
more  acid  the  less  alcohol,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  adding 
spirit,  or,  if  the  acidity  is  not  too  pronounced,  of  mixing  with  a 
full-bodied  but  ordinary  wine;  but  those  wines  should  not  be 
kept,  as  they  always  retain  acid  principles,  become  dry,  and  turn 
again  at  the  least  contact  with  the  air.  If  they  are  very  bad, 
and  their  alcoholic  strength  much  enfeebled,  they  had  better  be 
made  into  vinegar. 


144  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

Machard's  Treatment. — Machard  says  that  the  most  success- 
ful treatment  for  sour  wine  employ  egi  by  him,  is  that  founded 
upon  the  affinity  of  vegetable  substances  for  acids,  and  that  he 
has  succeeded  beyond  his  hopes  in  completely  removing  the  acid 
from  a  wine  which  was  so  sour  that  it  could  not  be  drank  with- 
out seriously  disagreeing  with  the  person  drinking  it.  This  is 
his  method  of  proceeding. 

He  formed  a  long  chaplet,  six  feet  or  so  in  length,  by  cutting 
carrots  into  short,  thin  pieces,  and  stringing  them  on  a  cord. 
This  he  suspended  in  the  wine  through  the  bung  for  six  weeks, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  time  he  did  not  find  the  least  trace  of  acetic 
acid,  thereby  accomplishing  what  he  had  for  a  long  time  in  vain 
attempted.  He  says  that  this  is  the  only  treatment  that  succeeded 
with  him,  and  he  confidently  recommends  it  to  others.  But  he 
advises  that  the  carrots  be  left  in  the  wine  at  least  a  month  and 
a-half ,  protecting  the  wine  from  the  air.  And  he  says  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  injuring  the  wine  by  long  contact  with  the  car- 
rots, or  by  using  a  large  quantity  of  them. 

Other  Methods. — Maigne  says  that  if  the  wine  is  only  affected 
at  the  surface  from  leaving  ullage  in  the  cask,  the  bad  air  should 
be  expelled  by  using  a  hand-bellows;  when  a  piece  of  sulphur 
match  will  burn  in  the  cask,  the  air  has  been  purified.  Then 
take  a  loaf  of  bread,  warm  as  it  comes  from  the  oven,  and  place  it 
upon  the  bung  in  such  a  way  as  to  close  it.  When  the  loaf  has 
become  cold,  remove  it,  rack  the  wine  into  a  well  sulphured  cask, 
being  careful  to  provide  the  faucet  with  a  strainer  of  crape  or 
similar  fabric,  so  as  to  keep  the  flowers  from  becoming  mixed 
with  the  wine.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  bread  absorbs  a  good 
deal  of  the  acid,  and  the  operation  should  be  repeated  as  often 
as  necessary. 

Another  plan  is  to  take  the  meats  of  60  walnuts  for  100  gallons 
of  wine,  break  each  into  four  pieces,  and  roast  them  as  you  would 
coffee;  throw  them,  still  hot,  into  the  cask,  after  having  drawn 
out  a  few  quarts  of  wine.  Fine  the  wine,  and  rack  when  clear, 
and  if  the  acidity  is  very  bad,  repeat  the  operation. 

A  half  pound  of  roasted  wheat  will  produce  the  same  effect. 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  145 

He  also  gives  the  following  method  for  using  marble  dust. 
Take  of 

White  marble,  -    12  Ibs. 

Sugar,  18  Ibs. 

Animal  charcoal,  washed  with  boiling  water,     6  ozs. 

Take  of  this  from  3  to  6  Ibs.  to  100  gallons  of  wine,  according 
to  the  degree  of  acidity ;  dissolve  it  in  two  or  three  gallons  of  the 
wine  and  pour  into  the  cask.  Shake  it  well,  and  continue  the 
agitation  from  time  to  time,  for  twenty -four  or  thirty -six  hours, 
till  the  wine  has  lost  its  acidity,  taking  care  to  leave  the  bung 
open  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  gen- 
erated. At  the  end  of  the  time,  add  of  cream  of  tartar  one- 
half  as  much  as  the  dose  employed;  shake  again,  from  time  to 
time,  and  at  the  end  of  five  or  six  hours,  draw  the  wine  off  and 
fine  it.  If,  at  the  end  of  the  first  twenty -four  hours,  the  wine  is 
still  acid,  add  a  little  more  of  the  powder  before  putting  in  the 
cream  of  tartar. 

In  answer  to  the  objections  that  the  charcoal  removes  the  color 
and  bouquet  of  the  wine,  and  that  the  acetate  of  potassium  formed 
injures  the  wine,  he  says  that  the  charcoal  would  not  hurt  a 
white  wine,  and  would  have  but  little  effect  upon  a  red  wine; 
and  as  to  the  bouquet,  that  wines  which  have  become  sour  have 
none,  and  that  the  acetate  of  potassium  has  no  perceptible  effect 
upon  the  health. 

Instead  of  the  preceding  powder,  the  following  may  be  em- 
ployed : 

White  marble,  in  fine  powder,  -     12  Ibs. 

(  for  ordinary  wine,    -  4  ozs. 

Animal  charcoal  i  «     /» 

( lor  line  wine,  -       2  ozs. 

Sugar,     -  1  lb. 

From  5  to  7  Ibs.  of  this  are  used  for  100  gallons  of  wine,  and 
one-half  the  quantity  of  cream  of  tartar  in  fine  powder  is  then 
added,  in  the  manner  above  mentioned. 

Cask  Flavor,  or  Barrel  Flavor— Causes.— This,  says  Mr. 
Boireau,  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  wood  flavor  derived 


146  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

from  oak  wood,  and  w<hich  wines  habitually  contract  when  stored 
in  new  casks,  and  which  comes  from  aromatic  principles  con- 
tained in  the  oak.  This  barrel  flavor  is  a  bad  taste,  which  appears 
to  come  from  an  essence  of  a  disagreeable  taste  and  smell,  and 
which  is  the  result  of  a  special  decay  of  the  wood  of  the  cask. 
This  vice  is  rare.  It  is  impossible  for  the  cooper  to  prevent  it, 
for  he  cannot  recognize  the  staves  so  affected,  so  as  to  reject 
them.  For  those  pieces  of  wood  which  have  a  disagreeable 
smell  when  worked,  or  show  reddish  veins,  blotched  with  white, 
often  produce  casks  which  give  no  bad  taste  to  the  wine,  while 
other  staves  selected  with  the  utmost  care,  sometimes  produce 
that  effect,  and  even  in  the  latter  case  it  is  impossible  to  point 
out  the  staves  which  cause  the  trouble.  When  such  a  cask  is 
found,  the  only  way  is  to  draw  off  the  wine,  and  not  use  the 
cask  a  second  time. 

The  Treatment  for  wines  which  have  contracted  a  bad  taste 
of  the  cask,  is  to  rack  them  into  a  sweet  cask,  previously  sul- 
phured, to  remove  them  from  contact  with  the  wood  which  has 
caused  the  trouble.  The  bad  taste  may  be  lessened  by  mixing 
in  the  wine  a  quart  or  two  of  sweet  oil,  and  thoroughly  stirring 
it  for  five  minutes,  first  removing  a  few  quarts  of  wine  from  the 
cask  to  permit  of  the  agitation.  The  oil  is  removed  from  the 
surface  by  means  of  a  taster,  or  pipette,  as  the  cask  is  filled  up. 
The  wine  should  then  be  thoroughly  fined,  either  with  whites  of 
eggs  or  gelatine,  according  to  its  nature,  and  racked  at  the  end 
of  one  or  two  weeks. 

The  reason  for  the  treatment  is  that  the  fixed  oil  takes  up  the 
volatile  essential  oil,  which  apparently  produces  the  bad  flavor. 
The  olive  oil  used  contracts  a  decided  flavor  of  the  cask. 

This  treatment  diminishes  the  cask  flavor,  but  rarely  entirely 
removes  it. 

Maigne  says  that  to  succeed  well  by  this  process,  the  oil  should 
be  frequently  mixed  with  the  wine,  by  stirring  it  often  for  two  or 
three  minutes  at  a  time,  during  a  period  of  eight  days.  It  is 
also  necessary  that  the  oil  be  fresh,  inodorous,  and  of  good 
quality,  and  of  the  last  crop. 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  147 

The  same  author  gives  another  process,  that  of  mixing  with 
the  wine  sufficient  sugar  or  must  to  set  up  active  fermentation. 
After  the  fermentation  has  ceased,  fine  and  rack. 

This  author  also  mentions  other  methods  of  treatment,  but  as 
olive  oil  is  the  remedy  more  generally  used,  it  is  not  worth  while 
to  give  them  at  length;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  substances 
recommended  are,  a  roasted  carrot  suspended  in  the  wine  for  a 
week;  a  couple  of  pounds  of  roasted  wheat  suspended  in  the 
wine  for  six  or  eight  hours  in  a  small  sack;  the  use  of  roasted 
walnuts,  as  mentioned  for  sourness;  and  two  or  three  ounces  of 
bruised  peach  pits,  soaked  two  weeks  in  the  wine. 

Mouldy  Flavor— Bad  Taste  Produced  by  Foreign  Matters.— 

Wine  contracts  a  musty  or  mouldy  flavor  by  its  sojourn  in  casks 
which  have  become  mouldy  inside,  on  account  of  negligence  and 
want  of  proper  care,  as  by  leaving  them  empty  without  sulphur- 
ing and  bunging.  (See  Casks.)  The  mould  in  empty  casks  is 
whitish,  and  consists  of  microscopic  fungi,  which  are  developed 
under  the  influence  of  humidity  and  darkness.  The  bad  flavor 
appears  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  an  essential  oil  of  a  disagree- 
able taste  and  smell. 

Prevention  and  Treatment. —  It  is  prevented  by  carefully 
examining  the  casks  before  filling  them,  and  by  avoiding  the  use 
of  those  which  have  a  mouldy  smell.  Wines  affected  by  this 
flavor  require  the  same  treatment  as  those  affected  with  cask 
flavor. 

Maigne  says  that  this  taste  may  also  be  corrected  by  applying 
a  loaf  of  warm  bread  to  the  open  bung,  or  by  suspending  in  the 
wine  a  half-baked  loaf  of  milk  bread.  The  operation  should  be 
repeated  in  three  or  four  days. 

Foreign  Flavors. — Wines  which  have  contracted  foreign 
flavors,  either  by  being  kept  in  casks  which  have  been  used  for 
liquors  of  decided  flavors  and  odors,  such  as  anisette,  absinthe, 
rum,  etc.,  or  from  contact  with  substances  having  good  or  bad 
odors,  owe  their  taste  to  the  dissolution  in  them  of  a  part  of  the 
essential  oil  which  those  substances  contain,  and  should  be 


148  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

treated  in  the  same  manner.  The  chief  thing  is  to  remove  the 
cause,  by  changing  the  cask,  for  if  the  foreign  taste  and  smell 
become  very  marked,  they  cannot  be  completely  destroyed;  they 
can  only  be  rendered  tolerable  by  mixing  them  with  sound  wines. 

Ropiness  is  the  name  applied  to  a  viscous  fermentation  which 
takes  place  in  wine,  making  it  slimy  in  appearance.  It  is  met 
with  more  particularly  in  white  wines,  which  contain  albuminous 
matters  in  suspension,  and  but  little  tannin.  It  is  not  a  very 
serious  difficulty,  for  it  can  be  easily  corrected.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  tannify  the  wine  by  adding  12  or  15  quarts  of  tannified 
wine,  well  stirred  in  with  a  whip  as  in  fining,  or  an  ounce  or  two 
of  tannin  dissolved  in  alcohol  for  each  100  gallons.  The  tannin 
combines  with  the  viscous  matter  and  precipitates  it,  so  that  in 
removing  the  ropiness  the  wine  is  fined  at  the  same  time.  It 
should  be  racked  from  the  finings  after  about  two  weeks'  repose. 

And  we  may  add  that  grapes  which  produce  wines  predisposed 
to  ropiness  ought  not  to  be  stemmed,  or  the  must  should  be  fer- 
mented with  at  least  a  portion  of  the  stems. 

Mr.  Machard  says  that  this  disease  is  also  due  sometimes  to 
lack  of  tartaric  acid,  and  that  it  may  be  cured  by  supplying  this 
substance,  and  setting  up  fermentation  again.  For  100  gallons 
of  wine,  about  a  pound  of  tartaric  acid  should  be  dissolved  in 
hot  water,  to  which  the  same  quantity  of  sugar  is  added,  and 
when  dissolved,  the  whole  is  poured  warm  into  the  cask  contain- 
ing the  ropy  wine.  Then  replace  the  bung,  and  give  the  cask  a 
thorough  rolling  for  six  or  eight  minutes.  A  small  hole  is  pre- 
viously bored  near  the  bung  and  closed  with  a  spigot,  which  is 
removed  after  rolling  the  cask,  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape.  After 
resting  two  or  three  days,  the  wine,  which  we  suppose  to  be  a 
white  wine,  should  be  fined  with  isinglass. 

Ropy  Wines  in  Bottles  generally  cure  themselves,  but  they 
must  not  be  disturbed  until  the  deposit  changes  color  and  takes 
a  brownish  tinge.  Then  is  the  time  to  decant  them  for  drinking. 

Ropiness  may  also  be  Cured  by  passing  the  wine  over  the 
marc  again.  But  only  good,  fresh  pomace  should  be  used,  which 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  149 

is  but  a  few  days  old.  This  is  done  by  mixing  the  wine  with  the 
marc  of  three  times  the  quantity  of  wine,  and  stirring*  from  time 
to  time  till  fermentation  is  established.  After  the  fermentation, 
the  press  wine  may  be  mixed  with  the  rest. 

The  author  does  not  state  whether  this  is  to  be  done  in  the  case 
of  white  wine  or  red  wine,  or  both,  but  it  is  apparent  that  it 
would  be  subjecting  a  white  wine  to  a  very  unusual  operation. 
Fresh  lees  may  also  be  mixed  with  the  wine  instead  of  the  marc. 
Sometimes  it  is  only  necessary  to  let  the  wine  fall  into  one  vessel 
from  another  at  a  little  height,  several  times,  or  to  give  it  a 
thorough  agitation  by  stirring  it,  or  by  driving  it  about  for  a  few 
hours  in  a  vehicle  over  a  rough  road. 

Alum  has  been  sometimes  recommended,  but  it  is  now  con- 
demned as  unwholesome. 

Other  means  have  been  suggested,  but  these  will  suffice;  and 
it  is  agreed  by  all  that  tannin  is  the  sovereign  remedy. 

It  is  best  to  avoid  the  use  of  sulphur  in  treating  ropy  wines, 
for  fermentation  is  to  be  encouraged  rather  than  checked. 

Acrity. — An  acrid  taste,  with  which  certain  wines  are  affected 
as  they  grow  old,  is  a  sign  of  degeneration.  Mr.  Boireau  says 
that  he  has  reason  to  believe  that  this  disease  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  acetic  acid,  coupled  with  the  precipitation  of  the  mucil- 
ages which  give  the  mellow  flavor  to  wine.  It  is  more  often 
observed  in  old,  dry  wine,  improperly  cared  for,  and  conse- 
quently deprived  of  its  fruity  flavor. 

The  Proper  Treatment  is  to  remove  the  acetic  acid  by  using  a 
gramme  or  two  per  litre  (60  to  120  grains  to  a  gallon)  of  car- 
bonate of  magnesium.  (See  Sourness,  Pricked  Wines.)  If  the 
acrity  is  not  too  great,  wines  may  be  fortified,  or  mixed  with  a 
strong,  young,  clean-tasting  wine  of  the  same  nature,  after 
which  they  should  be  fined. 

Bitterness,  which  is  often  a  natural  defect  (which  has  already 
been  considered),  becomes  an  accidental  defect  when  developed 
in  old  wines  which  were  previously  sou  ad.  It  is  almost  always 
a  commencement  of  degeneration.  This  bitter  taste  comes  prin- 


150  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

cipally  from  those  combinations  which  are  formed  by  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  coloring  matter,  and  by  the  precipitation  of  the 
mucilaginous  substances,  the  pectines,  which  give  the  wine  unc- 
tuosity  and  its  fruity  flavor. 

Treatment. — The  way  to  diminish  this  bitterness  is  to  fortify 
and  regenerate  the  bitter  wine  which  has  entered  on  its  decline*, 
by  mixing  it  with  wine  of  the  same  nature,  but  young,  stout,  and 
full-bodied,  and  which  have  not  yet  reached  maturity.  The  mix- 
ture should  be  fined  with  albumen,  and  racked  after  resting  a 
fortnight.  The  wine  may  be  improved  in  this  way,  but  the  bitter- 
ness will  reappear  in  a  few  months.  It  should,  thererore,  be  used 
as  soon  as  possible. 

Machard  recommends  the  following:  Fine  the  wine  with  eggs, 
and  let  it  rest  till  clear.  Burn  in  a  clean  cask  a  quarter  or  a  half 
of  a  sulphur  match  (for  60  gallons),  and  pour  in  the  bitter  wine 
at  once  with  the  smoke  in  the  cask,  after  having  added  to  each 
litre  of  the  wine  about  one  gramme  of  tartaric  acid  (say  GO 
grains  to  the  gallon),  dissolved  in  warm  water.  It  must  then  be 
mixed  with  from  a  fourth  to  a  half  of  old  wine,  firm  and  well 
preserved.  He  says  that  a  new  wine  to  mix  with  it  is  not  suit- 
able, not  having  sufficient  affinity  for  the  old. 

Where  there  is  such  a  difference  of  opinion  as  there  is  between 
these  two  authors,  one  recommending  the  mixture  of  new  wine, 
and  the  other  forbidding  it,  every  one  had  better  experiment 
for  himself  with  a  small  quantity,  and  after  the  cut  wines  have 
become  thoroughly  amalgamated,  a  choice  can  be  made. 

And  yet,  Mr.  Machard  says  that  if  the  bitterness  is  not  very 
great,  it  is  better  to  give  them  no  other  treatment  than  simply 
mixing  them  with  younger  ones,  but  which  have  a  tendency  to 
become  sour,  or  are  already  slightly  pricked. 

Mr.  Maumene  Distinguishes  Two  Kinds  of   Bitterness: 

1.  The  nitrogenous  matters,  under  certain  circumstances  not  well 
understood,  appear  to  be  changed  into  a  bitter  product,  and 
entirely  spoil  the  best  wine.  This  effect  depends  especially  upon 
the  elevation  of  the  temperature  and  the  old  age  of  the  wine.  He 
says  that  he  knows  of  but  one  way  to  remove  this  bitterness,  and 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  151 

that  is  to  add  a  small  quantity  of  liine.  For  example,  25  to  50 
centigrammes  per  litre  (say  15  to  30  grains  per  gallon).  The  lime 
should  be  perfectly  new  and  fresh.  It  is  slacked  in  a  little  water 
or  wine,  and  poured  into  the  cask;  after  stirring  well,  it  is  left  to 
rest  for  two  or  three  days,  and  then  racked  and  fined.  Probably 
the  lime  combines  with  the  nitrogenous  matters,  gives  an  insolu- 
ble compound,  which  separates  from  the  wine,  and  restores  to  it 
its  former  flavor.  The  wine  ought  to  remain  acid  after  this  treat- 
ment. He  says  that  it  has  succeeded  with  him  a  great  number 
of  times.  2.  Another  cause  of  bitterness  appears  to  him  to  be 
the  formation  of  the  brown  resin  of  ammoniacal  aldehyde,  under 
the  influence  of  oxygen.  The  ferment  which  adheres  to  the 
inside  of  the  cask  gives  a  little  ammonia  by  decomposition. 

We  see  how  the  wine,  under  the  influence  of  the  air,  produces 
a  little  aldehyde,  the  ammoniacal  aldehyde,  and  finally  the  very 
bitter  brown  resin,  whose  formation  was  made  known  by  Liebig. 
It  is  under  these  circumstances  that  sulphuring  may  be  employed 
as  a  remedy.  The  sulphurous  acid  destroys  the  resinous  matter 
in  taking  its  oxygen  to  become  sulphuric.  There  is  then  made 
sulphate  of  ammonia  and  pure  aldehyde.  These  two  substances 
by  no  means  communicate  to  the  wine  the  disagreeable  flavor  of 
the  brown  resin  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Another  origin  of  bitterness  is  given,  that  of  the  oxidation  of 
the  coloring  matter,  but  there  is  no  positive  proof  of  this  any 
more  than  there  is  of  the  two  causes  mentioned  by  him.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  whole  matter  is  hypothetical. 

Fermentation  and  Taste  of  the  Lees— Yeasty  Flavor. — By 

the  term  fermentation  in  this  connection  we  mean  the  malady 
which  is  known  in  different  parts  of  France  by  various  names, 
such  as  la  poasse,  vins  monies,  foarnes,  fares,  a  I'ecliaiid.  It  gen- 
erally attacks  those  wines  which  are  grown  in  low  places,  which 
come  from  poor  varieties  of  grapes,  or  are  produced  in  bad  sea- 
sons, are  weak,  full  of  ferments,  and  thereby  liable  to  work. 

Mr.  Boireau  gives  it  the  name  of  gout  de  travail,  working  taste, 
or  fermentation  flavor.  He  says  that  the  taste  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  carbonic  acid,  disengaged  during  secondary  alcoholic 


152  DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

fermentation,  by  reason  of  saccharine  matter  contained  in  the 
wine,  or  of  mucilaginous  matters  which  give  them  their  mellow- 
ness. The  principal  cause  of  fermentation  is  the  presence  of 
these  matters  joined  with  ferments,  and  takes  place  in  an  ele- 
vated temperature. 

The  yeasty  flavor  comes  from  the  mixture  in  the  wine  of  the 
lees  and  deposits  already  precipitated,  and  which  are  again 
brought  into  suspension  by  the  movement  of  fermentation. 

How  Prevented. — Fermentation  and  the  consequent  taste  of 
the  lees  are  prevented  by  making  and  fermenting  the  wines  under 
proper  conditions,  keeping  them  in  an  even  temperature,  and  by 
separating  them  from  their  lees  by  well-timed  rackings,  as  detailed 
in  the  chapters  on  General  Treatment,  Racking,  etc. 

Treatment. — The  working  is  stopped  by  racking  the  wines 
into  sulphured  casks,  and  placing  them  in  cellars  of  a  cool  and 
even  temperature.  (See  Sulphuring,  etc.)  If  they  have  become 
turbid,  they  must  be  fined,  and  they  must  be  left  on  the  finings 
only  as  long  as  is  strictly  necessary  for  their  clarification. 

Machard  recommends  that  about  a  quart  of  alcohol  for  100 
gallons  of  wine,  or  its  equivalent  of  old  brandy,  be  introduced 
into  the  sulphured  cask  before  drawing  the  wine  into  it,  and 
that  it  be  fined  in  all  cases. 

Degeneration— Putrid  Fermentation.— We  are  warned  of 
degeneration  in  wines  a  long  time  in  advance,  in  divers  manners: 
by  the  loss  of  their  fruity  flavor,  by  bitterness,  acrity,  etc.;  but 
the  true  symptoms  in  old  wine  are,  the  more  abundant  precipita- 
tion of  their  blue  coloring  matter,  a  heavy  and  tawny  aspect, 
with  a  slightly  putrid  flavor.  The  principal  causes  are  the  same 
as  those  mentioned  in  speaking  of  the  putrid  decomposition  in 
new  wines,  that  is,  feebleness  in  alcohol,  and  lack  of  tannin. 

We  know  that  by  the  time  the  tannin  is  transformed  into  gallic 
acid,  the  alcohol  is  diminished  by  slow  evaporation,  and  it  follows 
that  wines  which  are  too  old  have  lost  a  part  of  those  principles 
which  give  them  their  keeping  qualities,  alcohol  and  tannin. 

The    Duration  of  Different  Wines  is  exceedingly  unequal, 


DEFECTS  AND  DISEASES.  153 

and,  like  animate  beings,  they  display  marked  differences  in 
constitution.  There  are  very  feeble  wines,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  which  are  in  the  way  of  degeneration  the  first  year,  while 
others,  firm  and  full-bodied,  gain  in  quality  for  four,  six,  ten, 
and  more  years.  As  soon  as  it  is  seen  that  a  wine,  by  its  taste 
and  appearance,  has  commenced  to  degenerate,  it  is  important  to 
arrest  the  degeneration  at  once. 

Treatment. — Degeneration  may  be  retarded  by  adding  tannin, 
but  it  is  preferable,  in  most  cases,  to  mix  the  wine  with  younger 
wines  of  the  same  nature,  firm,  full-bodied,  which  are  improving, 
and  consequently  possess  an  excess  of  those  qualities  which  are 
wanting  in  the  degenerating  wine.  (See  Wine  in  Bottles.] 


11 


154  WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

WINE   IN   BOTTLES. 

When  Ready  for  Bottling.— Wines  should  not  be  bottled  till 
their  insensible  fermentation  is  entirely  completed,  have  become 
entirely  freed  from  deposits,  excess  of  color,  salts,  and  ferments, 
and  have  become  perfectly  bright.  If  they  are  bottled  before 
these  conditions  are  fulfilled,  deposits  are  made  in  the  bottles, 
the  wines  may  contract  bitterness  and  a  taste  of  the  lees,  and  if 
fermentation  is  violent,  the  bottles  may  burst.  When  they  are 
bottled  too  young  they  are  sure  to  deposit,  and  then  they  must 
be  decanted. 

The  Length  of  Time  that  They  Require  to  Remain  in  Wood 

before  being  ready  for  bottling,  depends  upon  the  strength  and 
quality  of  the  wines,  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  are 
kept. 

Weak  wines,  feeble  in  color  and  spirit,  mature  rapidly,  while 
firm,  full-bodied  wines,  rich  in  color  and  alcohol,  require  a 
longer  time  to  become  sufficiently  ripe  to  admit  of  bottling. 

The  older  writers  say  that  wines  should  not  be  put  into  glass 
until  they  have  become  fully  ripe,  and  have  become  tawny  (if  red), 
and  have  developed  a  bouquet.  But  Boireau  says  that  this  is  not 
the  proper  practice.  He  says  that  wine  is  fit  for  bottling  when 
freed  from  its  sediment,  and  when  there  is  hardly  any  deposit 
formed  in  the  cask  at  the  semi-annual  racking — when  its  color  is 
bright,  and  it  has  lost  its  roughness  or  harshness,  which  it  pos- 
sesses while  young,  and  at  the  same  time  preserves  its  mellowness. 
If  left  in  the  cask  till  a  bouquet  is  developed,  wines  will  often  be 
found  to  be  in  a  decline  by  the  time  they  are  bottled,  and  will 
not  keep  as  long  as  those  bottled  previous  to  the  development  of 
their  bouquet,  and  while  they  still  possess  their  fruity  flavor. 
But  greater  precautions  must  be  taken  to  insure  their  limpidity, 
or  they  will  be  liable  to  deposit  heavily  in  the  bottle.  And 
Machard,  who  indicates  aroma  and  color  as  signs  of  proper 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES.  155 

maturity,  though  laying  more  stress  upon  the  taste,  says  that  it 
is  always  better  to  be  a  little  too  soon  than  to  wait  till  the  wine 
passes  the  point. 

Some  wines  are  fit  for  the  bottle  at  one  year  old,  others  require 
to  be  kept  from  two  to  six  years,  and  some  even  ten  years,  or 
longer,  in  wood.  White  wine,  generally  speaking,  matures  earlier 
than  red. 

How  Prepared  for  Bottling.— Although  a  wine  may  appear 
perfectly  limpid  to  the  eye,  yet,  when  bottled,  it  may  make  a  con- 
siderable deposit,  and  therefore,  the  only  safety  is  to  carefully 
rack  and  fine  it  to  get  rid  of  the  insoluble  matters  in  suspension. 
If  it  is  not  clear  after  one  fining,  it  must  be  drawn  off  and  the 
process  repeated.  When  fined  and  cleared,  it  is  better  to  rack 
again  into  a  cask  slightly  sulphured,  and  allow  it  to  rest  for 
three  or  four  weeks  before  drawing  into  the  bottles;  for  if  drawn 
from  a  cask  still  containing  the  finings,  the  sediment  is  liable  to 
be  stirred  up  by  the  movement  of  the  liquid.  If  this  is  not  done, 
the  faucet  should  be  fixed  in  place  at  the  time  of  fining  and 
before  the  wine  has  settled,  and  at  the  same  time  the  cask  should 
be  slightly  inclined  forward  and  blocked  in  that  position,  and 
other  precautions  must  be  taken  not  to  disturb  the  cask  after  the 
wine  has  cleared.  If  the  wine  is  too  feeble  to  allow  of  fining 
without  injury,  and  one  is  sure  of  its  perfect  limpidity,  the 
fining  had  better  be  dispensed  with.  Very  young  wines  may  be 
bottled  after  subjecting  them  to  repeated  finings,  but  it  will 
deprive  them  of  some  of  their  good  qualities.  (See  Fining.)  It 
often  happens  that  a  well-covered,  or  dark-colored  wine  will 
deposit  considerable  color  in  the  bottle  after  one  fining;  such 
wine  should  be  twice  fined,  and  twice  racked  before  fining,  say, 
once  in  December  or  January,  and  again  in  March. 

The  Most  Favorable  Time  for  Bottling  is  during  cool,  dry 
weather,  but  in  cellars  of  uniform  temperature,  it  may  be  done 
at  any  time.  It  is  better,  if  possible,  to  avoid  warm  or  stormy 
weather,  and  those  critical  periods  in  the  growth  of  the  vine 
referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Racking.  Of  course,  the  wine  should 
not  be  bottled  if  it  shows  signs  of  fermentation. 


156 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


Bottle  Washer. 


Bottles  should  always  be  carefully  washed  and  drained  before 
using.     Theyjire  best  washed  by  the  use  of  a  machine  made  for 
the  purpose,  which  scrubs  them  inside — and   sometimes,  also, 
Fin.  27.  outside— with  a  brush   (fig.  27). 

If  only  a  small  number  of  bottles 
are  to  be  cleaned,  it  may  be  done 
by  using  the  chain  made  for  the 
purpose,  or  by  putting  in  coarse 
sand  or  gravel  and  water,  and 
thoroughly  shaking  them.  Shot 
must  not  be  used,  for  a  portion 
of  the  lead  will  be  dissolved  by 
the  water,  and  if  any  remains  in 
the  bottle  it  will  be  acted  upon 
by  the  wine,  and  lead  poisoning 
may  result.  In  many  cases  it  will 
be  necessary  only  to  rinse  them 
out  with  clean  water.  Whether  new  or  second-hand,  they  must 
be  scrupulously  clean  before  using.  After  the  bottles  are  rinsed, 
Fig.  28.  they  should  be  allowed  to  drain  by  leaving  them 
inverted  for  an  hour  or  two  in  a  dry  place;  if  they 
are  left  in  a  damp  cellar,  they  are  liable  to  contract  a 
musty  flavor  within.  They  may  be  drained  by  placing 
*the  necks  downward  through  holes  bored  in  a  plank, 
by  inverting  them  in  boxes  or  baskets,  or  by  placing 
them  upon  pegs  or  nails  driven  into  a  post,  and 
inclining  upwards  sufficiently  to  leave  the  opening 
of  the  bottle  down,  when  the  neck  is  slipped  over 
Fig.  29.  the  peg  or  nail.  Figs. 

28  and  29  show  devices 
for  the  purpose.  The 
bottles  are  sometimes 
rinsed  out  with  wine, 
Bottle  Drainers.  or  if  intended  to  con- 

tain very  poor,  weak  wine,  with  a  little  brandy.     This  is  done  by 
pouring  the  liquor  from  one  bottle  to  another. 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


157 


It  is  best  to  use  bottles  uniform  in  size  for  each  lot  of  wine, 
and  certainly  to  reject  those  which  are  cracked,  have  large  blis- 
ters, and  those  which  are  very  thin.  These  latter,  however,  may 
be  employed,  if  but  little  pressure  is  used  in  corking,  but  they 
should  be  placed  by  themselves,  or  on  the  top  of  the  pile.  No 
one  would  make  use  of  such  bottles  except  to  store  wine  for  his 
own  consumption. 

Clear  and  transparent  bottles  are  used  for  white  wine,  and 
those  of  colored  glass  for  red.  Hock,  however,  is  often  put  in 
brownish  bottles,  conical  in  shape.  White  wines  which  are  per- 
fectly limpid  show  to  advantage  in  clear  bottles,  but  red  wines, 
if  stored  in  such,  are  liable  to  lose  their  color  by  the  action  of 
light. 

It  is  important  that  the  glass  of  which  wine  bottles  are  made 
should  not  contain  too  much  soda,  potash,  or  lime,  or  they  may 
combine  with  the  acids,  and  injure  the  wine.  By  the  use  of 
crude  soda,  alkaline  sulphites  may  be  formed  in  the  glass,  and 
communicate  an  odor  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  to  the  wine. 

Filling  the  Kottles. — If  the  faucet  has  not  previously  been 
placed  in  the  cask,  it  must  now  be  done  with  great  care,  so  as  not 


Fig.  30. 


Reservoir  for  ulling  Bottles. 


to  disturb  any  lees  that  may  have 
remained  at  the  last  racking.  The 
faucet  should  be  put  into  the  cask 
open,  as  for  racking,  and  with  very 
light  blows  of  the  hammer.  A 
shallow  dish  or  bucket  is  placed 
under  the  faucet  in  which  the  bottle 
stands.  An  ordinary  brass  faucet 
may  be  used,  or  the  bottles  may  be 
filled  much  more  rapidly  by  draw- 
ing the  wine  from  the  cask  into  a 
reservoir  provided  with  as  many 
faucets  or  tubes  as  bottles  which  it 
is  desired  to  fill  at  the  same  time 
(fig.  30) .  The  cask  must  be  vented 


either  by  making  a  gimlet  hole  or  two  near  the  bung,  or  the  bung 


158  WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 

must  be  removed.  The  latter,  however,  must  not  be  done  by 
blows  with  the  bung-starter,  but  by  using  the  bung-screw  (fig.  31) , 
Fig.  31.  or  the  lees  will  be  stirred  up.  The  bottle  should 

not  be  placed  upright  so  that  the  wine  will  fall 
directly  to  the  bottom,  but  should  be  slightly 
inclined  so  as  to  permit  the  wine  to  trickle  down 
the  inside,  or  a  foam  will  be  formed,  and  it  will 
be  difficult  to  fill  the  bottle.  The  workman 
having  his  empty  bottles  within  reach,  allows  a 
little  of  the  first  wine  to  run  into  the  dish,  or 
into  a  bottle,  which  is  put  aside,  as  there  may 
Bung  Screw.  be  some  impurities  in  the  faucet.  The  work- 
man is  seated  in  front  of  the  cask,  and  the  empty  bottles  are 
placed  one  at  a  time  under  the  faucet  as  described.  As  soon  as 
one  bottle  is  filled,  it  is  removed  and  another  put  in  its  place, 
without  closing  the  faucet,  and  without  loss  of  wine.  The  sedi- 
ment would  be  disturbed  by  the  shocks  caused  by  opening  and 
shutting  the  faucet. 

If  the  needle  is  used  in  corking  the  bottles,  they  should  be 
filled  within  a  little  more  than  an  inch  of  the  top,  and  if  corked 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  only  to  within  about  two  inches  of  the 
opening,  leaving  an  inch  of  vacancy  below  the  cork  ;  always, 
however,  depending  somewhat  upon  the  length  of  the  corks 
used.  This  is  continued,  placing  the  full  bottles  in  a  convenient 
place,  until  the  wine  ceases  to  run  at  the  faucet.  The  cask  must 
then  be  slightly  inclined  forward,  as  described  in  the  case  of 
racking.  At  this  stage,  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  trouble 
the  wine;  and  if  a  few  bottles  at  the  end  contain  that  which  is 
not  clear,  they  should  be  put  aside,  to  be  decanted  after  settling. 
In  drawing  from  the  upper  tiers  of  casks  in  piles,  the  basin  must 
be  elevated  sufficiently  to  bring  the  bottle  placed  in  it  up  to  the 
faucet,  or  the  latter  may  be  connected  with  it  by  a  hose. 

Corks. — Only  good  corks  should  be  used.  They  are  supple 
and  uniform  in  texture.  Poor  corks  are  sold  in  the  market,  in 
which  is  found  a  good  deal  of  the  dark,  hard  portion  of  the 
bark,  which  are  not  only  liable  to  break  the  bottles  by  the  great 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


159 


amount  of  pressure  required  to  insert  them,  but  also  to  discolor 
the  wine,  affect  its  flavor,  and  to  permit  it  to  leak  out.  Straight 
corks  are  used  now-a-days,  somewhat  larger  than  the  neck  of  the 
bottle,  and  are  forced  in  by  means  of 

Corking  Machines. —  These  machines  are  of  different  forms 
and  make,  but  are  provided  with  a  hollow  cone  through  which 
the  cork  is  forced  by  a  piston,  compressing  it  so  that  it  easily 
goes  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  Some  work  with  a  lever,  and 
some  with  a  crank.  In  the  small  hand-machine,  the  piston  is 

Fig.  32. 


Corking  Machines. 

pushed  by  the  hand.  The  bottles  may  be  made  full  enough  so 
that  the  wine  will  touch  the  bottom  of  the  cork,  leaving  no  vacant 
space,  if  the  needle  is  used  in  corking.'  This  is  a  small,  tapering, 
half-round,  steel  instrument,  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
with  a  groove  along  the  flat  side.  By  placing  this  in  the  neck 
with  the  groove  next  the  glass,  the  cork  may  be  forced  down  to 
the  wine,  the  air  and  surplus  wine  escaping  by  the  groove.  After 
the  cork  is  driven  home,  the  needle  is  removed.  A  piece  of  wire, 
provided  with  a  handle,  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  handle  of1 
the  needle  (either  a  ring,  or  like  that  of  a  gimblet),  is  attached 
by  a  hinge,  and  turns  down  out  of  the  way  of  the  tube  and  piston 
of  the  machine.  Some  bottling  machines  have  a  needle  attach- 
ment. Bottles  corked  by  the  use  of  this  instrument  do  not  con- 


160  WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 

tain  a  vacant  space,  and  the  wine  keeps  better,  not  being  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  air,  which  would  otherwise  remain  in  the  neck 
of  the  bottle,  and  not  being  shaken  in  transportation. 

Fig.  33. 


Corking  Machines. 

Figures  32  and  33  show  corking  machines  with  and  without 
needles.  In  fig.  33  two  needles  are  also  shown. 

If  the  old-fashioned  conical  corks  are  used,  they  may  be  driven 
home  with  a  small  mallet,  or  wooden  paddle,  but  the  cylindrical 
corks  are  preferable,  if  the^wine  is  to  be  kept  long. 

Preparation  of  the  Corks.— In  order  to  render  them  more 
supple,  they  are  soaked  for  several  hours  in  water.  What  is  far 
better,  however,  is  to  steam  them  for  two  or  three  hours,  or  soak 
them  in  hot  water.  They  should  be  allowed  to  drain,  and  then 
be  dipped  in  wine  like  that  to  be  bottled.  Some  dip  them  in 
alcohol  to  render  them  more  slippery,  and  some  again,  put  a  drop 
or  two  of  sweet  oil  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  which  they  are 
wet. 

The  Corks  may  be  Driven  down  Flush  with  the  opening  of 
the  bottle,  or  they  may  be  left  projecting  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES.  161 

and  if  much  larger  than  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  a  shoulder  will 
be  formed,  as  in  the  case  of  sparkling  wines.  The  object  of 
leaving  the  corks  projecting  a  third  of  their  length  in  bottling 
sparkling  wines  is,  that  they  may  be  forced  out  with  an  explosion; 
and  the  shoulder  completely  closes  the  bottle,  being  wired  down. 

Sealing  the  Corks. — If  the  bottles  are  stored  in  a  damp  place 
where  the  corks  are  liable  to  rot,  and  also  if  they  are  to  be  kept 
more  than  two  years,  it  is  well  to  cover  the  ends  of  the  corks  with 
wax.  This  also  prevents  attacks  by  insects. 

The  Sealing  Wax  used  should  be  sufficiently  adhesive,  but 
not  too  hard  and  brittle.  Various  receipts  are  given  for  its  prepa- 
ration, and  the  following  is  given  by  Boireau:  Melt  common 
pitch  or  turpentine  over  a  slow  fire,  taking  care  not  to  allow  it  to 
boil  over.  When  it  is  well  melted,  remove  whatever  impurities 
it  contains,  add  a  little  tallow — a  little  less  than  an  ounce  of 
tallow  to  a  pound  of  pitch.  Its  natural  color  is  reddish,  and-  is 
used  without  addition  of  coloring  matter.  Kosin  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  pitch.  Instead  of  making  this  preparation,  the 
fruit  wax  of  commerce  may  be  used.  About  the  same  quantity 
of  tallow,  however,  should  be  added,  if  sealing  wax  is  used,  or 
otherwise  it  will  be  too  brittle.  The  tallow  may  be  replaced  by 
beeswax  with  advantage. 

An  excellent  bottle  wax  is  said  to  be  made  by  melting  together 
two  pounds  rosin,  one  pound  Burgundy  pitch,  one-fourth  pound 
yellow  wax,  and  one-eighth  pound  red  wax.  The  wax  may  be 
replaced  by  three  ounces  of  tallow.  If  too  much  tallow  is  added 
the  cement  will  be  too  soft. 

The  Cement  is  Applied  Hot.— It  must  be  melted,  and  the 
bottle  reversed  and  dipped  into  it,  so  that  the  wax  will  cover  the 
end  of  the  cork  and  a  small  part  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  say 
down  to  the  ring.  It  is  entirely  unnecessary  to  cover  more  of 
the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Coloring  Matter  may  be  added  to  these  different  cements,  and 
any  desired  color  produced.  A  little  more  than  half  an  ounce  of 


162 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


the  following  named  substances  is  stirred  in  to  one  pound  of  the 
melted  wax. 

A  brilliant  red  is  produced  by  vermilion,  a  duller  red  by  red 
ochre,  black  with  animal  black,  yellow  with  orpiment,  dark 
yellow  with  yellow  ochre,  and  blue  with  Prussian  blue.  Green 
is  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  blue  and  yellow,  and  other 
shades  may  be  made  by  mixing  the  different  colors  to  suit  the 
taste. 


Fig.  34. 


Capsules  are  now  much  used  instead  of  wax.  In  preparing 
the  bottled  wine  for  shipment,  where  the  corks  have  previously 
been  waxed  for  storing  in  the  cellar,  capsules 
are  also  used .  In  this  case,  the  wax  is  removed 
before  the  capsule  is  put  on  by  means  of  a  pair 
of  pincers  with  roughened  jaws  (fig.  34).  These 

,  capsules  in  different  colors  are  sold  by  dealers 

Pincers  for  .    r 

Removing   Wax.      in  corks. 

They  are  Put  on  by  slipping  one  over  the  neck  of  the  bottle 
as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  then  pressing  it  down  closely  all  round. 
For  this  purpose,  one  turn  is  made  around  the  end  of  the  capsule 
with  a  stout  cord  fastened  at  one  end,  and  the  bottle  is  pushed 
Fin.  35.  forward  with  one  hand,  while  the  loose 

end  of  the  string  is  pulled  tight  with 
the  other,  thus  sliding  the  loop  over  the 
capsule  and  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and 
pressing  it  firmJy  in  place.  Instead  of 
holding  the  cord  with  one  hand,  it  may 
be  attached  to  a  pedal  worked  by  the 
foot.  A  machine  (fig.  35)  is  made  with 
two  posts  or  standards,  one  solid,  to 
which  one  end  of  the  cord,  A,  is  at- 
Capsuler.  tached,  and  the  other  playing  on  a 

hinge,  to  which  the  other  end  is  fastened,  and  pulled  tight  by  a 
pedal,  B. 

Piling  of  Bottles. — Bottles  may  be  stacked  on  the  floor  of  the 
cellar  in  piles  consisting  of  a  single  or  a  double  range.     The  bed 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES.  163 

should  be  made  level  by  arranging  the  soil,  or  by  laying  down 
strips  of  wood,  and  leveling  them.  The  bottles  should  be  laid 
horizontal.  If  the  neck  is  down,  the  deposit  will  be  on  and  near 
the  cork,  and  will  trouble  the  wine  as  it  runs  from  the  bottle.  If 
the  bottom  is  lower  than  the  neck,  the  cork  will  not  be  kept  wet, 
and  the  wine  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  air,  as  the  cork  is  not 
perfectly  air  tight.  The  bottles  should  be  supported  at  two 
points,  the  neck  and  the  bottom;  the  belly  of  the  bottle  needs 
no  support.  If  two  tiers  of  bottles  are  put  in  a  pile,  the  bottoms 
are  on  the  outside,  with  the  necks  at  the  middle  of  the  pile. 
Laths  are  used  to  support  the  bottles,  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  one  inch  or  more  wide.  The  lower  row  of  one 
tier  is  made  by  laying  down  at  the  outside  of  the  pile  two  laths 
to  support  the  bottom  end  of  the  bottle,  and  one  thick  strip  or 
sufficient  laths  are  laid  down  to  support  the  neck,  inside  the  ring, 
and  keep  the  bottle  level.  The  next  tier  may  be  commenced  by 
laying  one  or  two  laths  on  the  necks  of  the  bottles  of  the  first 
one  to  support  the  necks  of  those  of  the  other,  the  necks  of  the 
bottles  of  one  tier  lapping  over  those  of  the  bottles  of  the  other; 
Fig.  36.  the  bottoms  of  those  of  this  tier  must 

be  sufficiently  elevated  by  laths  to 
keep  the  bottles  level.  The  next 
row  of  bottles  is  supported  by  laths 

laid  on  those  below,  one  or  two  near 

Filing    Bottles.  ,    .,  ., 

the  outer  end  of  the  lower  ones,  and 

a  larger  number  011  their  necks.  In  this  case  the  necks  all  point 
in,  the  bottoms  being  together  (fig.  36).  The  bottles  of  each  row 
should  be  sufficiently -separated  to  allow  those  of  the  next  row 
above  to  be  supported  by  the  laths  without  touching  each  other, 
and  should  be  blocked  after  adjusting  the  distances.  The  piles 
may  be  made  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  and  must  be  supported 
at  the  ends,  either  by  the  cellar  walls  or  posts. 

Each  tier  may  be  made  entirely  independent  of  the  other,  by 
supporting  the  necks  of  the  bottles  of  the  next  upper  row  on 
laths  laid  near  the  bottoms  of  those  of  the  first  row,  one  row 
having  the  necks  pointing  out,  and  the  next  one  having  them 


164 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


pointing  the  other  way.  In  this  case  the  bottles  in  a  row  may 
be  separated  an  inch  or  more  from  each  other,  and  blocked  with 
bits  of  cork. 

Racks  and  Bins  for  Bottles. — Instead  of  piling  the  bottles, 
they  may  be  arranged  in  bins  constructed  for  the  purpose.  The 
simplest  is  a  frame  of  wood  or  iron  of  the  desired  length  and 
Fig.  37.  height,  and  deep 

enough  to  accommo- 
date one  or  two  tiers 
of  bottles.  The  lower 
bars  on  which  the 
first  row  of  bottles 
rests,  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  support 
them  in  a  level  posi- 
tion, as  already  de- 
scribed for  piling. 
If  only  one  tier  is  to 
Uottie  Rack.  be  made,  only  two  bars 

at  the  bottom  are  necessary,  but  if  double  ranges  are  to  be  made, 
the  frame  must  be  deeper,  and  have  a  middle  bar  to  support  the 
necks  of  the  bottles,  the  bottoms  all  being  outside.  The  bottles 
are  piled  in  these  frames  in  the  manner  already  described. 

Fig.  38.  Instead  of  piling  them  in  sim- 

ple frames  with  the  use  of  laths, 
racks  are  made  with  bars  to  sup- 
port each  row  of  bottles  by  itself, 
and  so  that  any  one  bottle  can  be 
taken  out  without  disturbing  the 
rest.  If  the  supports  are  of  wood, 
they  may  be  cut,  or  if  of  iron, 
bent  in  a  form  to  fit  each  bottle, 
that  is,  in  small  half -circles  in 
which  the  bottles  rest,  with  smaller 
ones  for  the  necks,  or  they  may  be  straight.  These  bins  may  be 
made  portable,  and  of  any  size  to  suit.  (figs.  37  and  38.) 


i2@g^ 


Bottle  Rack. 


WINE  IN  BOITLES.  165 

Burrow's  Patent  Slider  Bin,  made  in  England,  has  a  separate 
compartment  for  each  bottle. 

Fin.  39. 


Burrow's  Slider  Bin. 

Treatment  of  Wine  in  Bottles.— Sometimes  it  will  be  found 
that  wine  ferments  in  the  bottle,  becomes  turbid,  and  makes  a 
voluminous  deposit,  or  may  contract  various  maladies,  such  as 
bitterness,  harshness,  ropiness,  or  may  become  putrid.  These 
effects  result  principally  from  bottling  the  wine  too  young,  before 
insensible  fermentation  and  the  natural  clearing  has  been  com- 
pleted, or  they  may  be  caused  by  changes  of  temperature,  or  too 
great  age. 

Fermentation  in  the  Bottles  is  due  to  the  same  causes  as 
fermentation  in  casks — changes  of  temperature,  contact  of  the 
air,  etc.  It  may  be  avoided  by  bottling  at  the  proper  time,  care- 
fully protecting  the  wine  from  the  air  by  corking  the  bottles 
hermetically  by  the  use  of  the  needle,  and  keeping  them  in  a 
cellar  of  even  temperature.  Boireau  says  that  sweet  and  mellow 


166  WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 

wines  are  liable  to  ferment  in  bottles,  especially  if  exposed  to  a 
high  temperature,  unless  their  alcoholic  strength  exceeds  15  per 
cent.  Still  wines  which  ferment  in  the  bottle  generally  must  be 
emptied  into  casks,  and  there  treated  as  indicated  in  the  chapter 
on  Diseases.  Temporary  relief  may  be  given  by  putting  the 
bottles  in  a  cooler  place,  and  uncorking  them  for  an  hour  or  two 
to  allow  the  gas  to  escape. 

Deposits  and  Turbidity. — Wine,  after  being  some  time  in 
glass,  forms  more  or  less  deposit,  according  to  its  age,  quality, 
and  degree  of  limpidity  at  the  time  of  bottling.  The  deposits 
consist  almost  entirely  of  coloring  matter,  and  vegetable  and 
mineral  salts;  sometimes  they  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the  bottle, 
and  in  some  cases  they  render  the  wine  turbid,  and  again  they 
present  the  appearance  of  gravel  when  the  wine  contains  much 
tartar. 

In  wines  bottled  too  young,  or  which  are  made  by  mixing 
those  of  different  natures,  quite  a  voluminous  deposit  may  be 
formed  after  they  have  remained  a  few  years  in  glass.  But  good, 
natural  wines,  of  good  growth,  well  cared  for,  and  bottled  under 
proper  conditions,  scarcely  commence  to  deposit  at  the  end  of 
one  or  two  years.  The  deposit,  however,  will  be  increased,  if 
the  bottles  are  frequently  disturbed,  are  transported  long  dis- 
tances, undergo  changes  of  temperature,  or  are  kept  so  long 
that  they  begin  to  degenerate.  If  there  is  much  deposit,  it  is 
apt  to  give  the  wine  a  bitter  or  acrid  flavor,  or  a  taste  of  the  lees. 
Therefore,  if  the  wines  are  of  high  quality,  they  should  be 
decanted. 

Mr.  Boireau  proceeds  to  say  that  if  the  deposit  is  small,  and 
we  are  dealing  with  grand  wines  in  bottles,  which  have  contracted 
no  bad  taste,  it  is  better  not  to  decant  them,  for  the  operation  is 
liable  to  cause  a  loss  of  a  portion  of  the  bouquet,  especially  if  not 
done  with  proper  precautions. 

These  directions  only  apply  to  those  bottled  wines  which  have 
deposited  sediment,  but  which  are  nevertheless  clear,  and  bright, 
and  of  a  lively  color.  Those,  however,  which  become  and  remain 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES.  167 

turbid,  must  be  fined,  and  for  this  purpose  they  must  be  put  into 
casks.  If  wines  containing  sediment  are  brought  to  the  table 
without  decanting,  they  are  kept  in  nearly  the  same  position  as 
they  occupied  in  the  cellar,  by  using  small  baskets  contrived  for 
the  purpose.  (See  Decantation.) 

Bitterness  and  Acrity,  when  not  caused  by  deposits,  are  due 
to  loss  of  the  fruitiness  and  mellowness  of  the  wine,  which  then 
has  commenced  to  decline.  The  only  remedy  in  case  of  fine  wines 
which  have  preserved  their  bouquet,  is  to  mix  them  with  younger 
wines,  mellow  and  perfectly  bright.  This  should  be  done  by 
decanting  without  contact  with  the  air;  but  if  they  are  seriously 
affected,  they  must  be  put  into  casks  and  the  operation  there 
performed;  then  they  should  be  well  fined  before  re-bottling. 

Ropiness  in  bottled  wines,  which  is  due  to  lack  of  tannin, 
generally  occurs  in  white  wines  which  have  been  bottled  before 
perfectly  clear,  and  while  they  contained  considerable  nitro- 
genous and  albuminous  matters  in  suspension.  The  treatment 
is  indicated  elsewhere. 

In  most  cases,  if  the  wines  are  worn  out,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  put  them  into  casks,  and  mix  them  with  younger  ones  of  the 
same  quality. 

Degeneration  and  Putridity. — Wine  may  be  kept  and  im- 
proved in  bottles,  if  properly  treated,  as  long  as  its  constituent 
principles  remain  soluble  and  in  combination ;  but  with  the  lapse 
of  time,  varying  with  different  kinds,  it  begins  to  lose  quality. 
This  degeneration,  says  the  author  last  quoted,  announces  itself 
a  long  time  in  advance,  in  the  grand  wines,  by  a  loss  of  their 
unctuosity,  of  their  fruity  flavor,  and  by  a  bitter  and  sometimes 
acrid  taste;  and  if  they  are  kept  for  several  years  more,  the  fra- 
grance of  the  bouquet  is  lost,  and  they  contract  a  rancio  or  tawny 
flavor,  which  masks  their  natural  flavor;  they  rapidly  lose  color, 
and  form  a  deposit  much  more  considerable  than  in  the  earlier 
years  of  their  sojourn  in  bottles;  and  finally,  when  their  degen- 
eracy is  advanced,  they  give  off  a  slightly  putrid  odor. 


168  WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 

As  soon  as  high  priced  wines  have  attained  their  entire  devel- 
opment in  bottles,  in  order  to  prevent  their  decline,  they  should 
be  carefully  decanted  into  bottles  with  ground  glass  stoppers, 
previously  rinsed  with  wine  of  the  same  kind. 

Loss  of  color,  joined  with  an  abundant  deposit,  which  is  a 
sure  sign  of  degeneration  in  the  wines  of  the  Gironde,  do  not 
mean  the  same  in  all  other  kinds.  For  instance,  the  red  wines  of 
Spain  (and  we  may  add,  Portugal),  and  the  sweet  wines  of  Kou- 
sillon,  which  have  a  very  dark  color  when  young,  almost  entirely 
lose  it  after  three  or  four  years  in  bottle;  they  become  tawny, 
without  degenerating;  but,  quite  to  the  contrary,  their  quality  is 
improved. 

It  is  observed,  however,  that  in  wines  of  these  latter  classes, 
whose  alcoholic  strength  exceeds  15  per  cent.,  the  deposit  is 
not  so  great,  compared  with  the  amount  of  coloring  matter 
precipitated,  as  in  wines  of  the  first  mentioned  growth,  and  that 
the  coloring  matter  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  bottle,  instead  of 
falling  to  the  bottom.  Some  of  our  California  wines  deposit  a 
good  deal  of  color  in  the  bottle,  even  when  fined.  Probably  a 
double  fining  would  be  advantageous  in  many  cases. 

As  alcohol  and  tannin  are  the  preservative  principles  of  wines, 
those  last  longest  which  are  best  provided  with  them. 

The  cause  of  the  degeneration  of  wine  is  the  decomposition  of 
its  constituent  parts,  which  thereby  become  insoluble,  and  are 
precipitated.  The  loss  of  tannin,  which  in  time  is  transformed 
into  gallic  acid,  takes  from  feeble  wines  their  best  conservator, 
and  causes  precipitation  of  the  coloring  matter.  And  it  is 
observed  in  practice  that  wines  which  contain  a  great  quantity  of 
tannin  last  longer  than  those  of  the  same  alcoholic  strength  hav- 
ing less  tannin. 

Decantation  consists  in  drawing  a  wine  from  the  bottle  con- 
taining it,  so  as  to  leave  the  sediment  behind.  It  should  be 
done  without  exposing  the  wine  to  the  air. 


WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 


109 


The  bottles  should  be  brought  from  the  cellar  without  chang- 
ing their  position,  for  if  the  deposit  is  disturbed,  and  the  wine 
becomes  cloudy,  the  bottles  must  Fig.  4:1. 

rest  till  it  has  settled  again.  For 
this  purpose  they  are  laid  in  a 
basket,  or  other  suitable  receptacle, 

Fig.  40. 


Decanting  Basket.  Corkscreus. 

where  they  are  inclined  just  enough  so  that  the  wine  will  not  run 
out  when  the  cork  is  removed  (fig.  40).  -The  cork  must  be  drawn 
without  disturbing  the  sediment,  by  using  a  corkscrew,  which  by 
means  of  a  screw  or  lever,  gradually  removes  it,  and  without  a 
shock  (fig.  41 ).  The  wine  is  slowly  run  into  another  clean  bottle 
previously  rinsed  with  the  same  kind  of  wine.  If  the  wine  is  in 
its  decline,  rinse  the  bottles  with  old  brandy. 

The  Operation  may  be  Performed  by  carefully  pouring  the 
wine  into  the  empty  bottle  through  a  small  funnel,  which  is  pro- 
Fig.  42.  vided  with  a  strainer.     By  means  of 

a  light  placed  below  the  bottle,  the 
sediment  can  be  watched,  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  about  to  run  out  with 
the  wine,  the  operation  must  cease. 
The  new  bottle  must  be  filled  up 
with  the  same  kind  of  wine  and 
immediately  corked.  In  decanting 
in  this  manner,  the  bubbling  of  the 

air  passing  into  the  bottle  as  the  wine  runs  out,  is  very  apt  to 
disturb  the  lees.  This  may  be  prevented  by  using  a  small  tube, 
slightly  curved,  which  connects  the  air  outside  with  the  vacant 

space  in  the  bottle.    In  order  to  prevent  access  of  the  air,  however, 
12 


Decanting  Instrument. 


170  WINE  IN  BOTTLES. 

an  instrument  is  used  consisting  of  two  conical  corks,  connected 
by  a  small  rubber  tube.  Each  cork  is  pierced  with  two  holes;  the 
one  placed  in  the  botlle  to  be  emptied,  besides  the  hole  which 
receives  the  rubber  hose  through  which  the  wine  runs,  is  pro- 
vided with  one  through  which  a  bent  tube  is  placed  to  admit  the 
air;  the  hose  passes  through  the  other  cork  and  conducts  the 
wine  into  the  other  bottle,  and  this  cork  has  another  hole  for  the 
escape  of  the  air  (fig.  42). 


CUTIING  OR  MIXING   WINES.  171 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

CUTTING    OK    MIXING    WINES. 

Most  French  Wines  Mixed.— Maigne,  speaking  of  the  wines 
of  France,  says,  that  of  one  hundred  wines  in  the  market,  per- 
haps there  are  not  ten  which  are  not  produced  by  mixing  several 
different  kinds.  Without  doubt,  he  says,  we  should  as  much  as 
possible  preserve  the  products  of  the  vine  as  they  are  given  to 
us;  but  there  are  a  multitude  of  cases  where  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  to  render  them  drinkable  without  mixing,  or  as  wine 
men  say,  without  culling  them  with  other  wines. 

When  Necessary  —  Effect  of. — In  good  years,  almost  all 
wines  can  be  drank  in  their  natural  condition,  but  when  the 
grapes  have  not  become  sufficiently  ripe,  the  wines,  even  of  good 
growths,  lack  quality,  or  preserve  for  a  long  time  a  roughness 
more  or  less  marked,  and  always  disagreeable.  It  is  then  neces- 
sary to  mix  them,  especially  if  common  wines,  with  better  ones, 
to  make  them  tolerable.  It  is  not  always  necessary,  however, 
that  the  season  should  be  bad,  in  order  that  cutting  should  be 
proper.  Wines  naturally  have,  for  a  certain  time,  an  earthy 
flavor  and  greenness  which  are  unpleasant,  which  disappear  by 
mixing.  This  is  why  ordinary  wines  of  a  moderate  price,  which 
have  been  mixed,  are  preferred  by  a  great  number  of  consumers 
to  others  which  are  higher  in  price  but  left  in  a  state  of  nature. 
For  example,  a  new,  very  dark-colored  wine  of  good  growth  is 
not  an  agreeable  drink;  but  if  an  old  white  wine  of  an  inferior 
growth,  but  of  good  taste  and  constitution  be  added,  it  will  be 
drank  with  pleasure. 

Mixing  the  wine  produces  results  similar  to  those  caused  by 
mixing  the  fruit,  and  it  may  be  done  by  the  wine  maker  as  well 
as  by  the  merchant.  As  they  come  from  the  vat,  wines  manifest 
the  qualities  and  defects  communicated  by  the  vintage,  and 
which  are  varied  by  a  multitude  of  circumstances,  such  as  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  varieties  of  grapes,  temperature  of  the  season, 
and  the  like. 


172  CUTTING  OE  MIXING   WINES. 

"Wines  endowed  with  qualities  which  fit  them  to  be  kept  in 
their  natural  condition,  of  course,  are  not  mixed.  But  those 
which,  on  the  other  hand  (and  they  are  in  the  majority),  have 
too  much  or  too  little  color,  are  weak,  flat,  coarse,  green,  pasty, 
rough,  lacking  in  bouquet,  too  strong,  or  too  light,  cannot  be 
put  on  the  market  till  they  have  been  cut  with  other  wines  capa- 
ble of  giving  them  the  qualities  which  they  lack,  and  of  remedy- 
ing their  defects.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  mixture  of  a 
weak  wine  with  a  stronger  one,  of  one  lacking  color  with  one 
which  has  too  much,  a  light  wine  with  a  generous  one,  of  a  hard 
wine  with  a  flat  one,  etc.,  a  wine  will  be  produced  superior  in 
quality  to  any  one  of  those  used. 

For  these  reasons,  in  a  viticultural  district,  when  a  producer 
cannot  sell  his  wine  of  a  bad  year,  he  mixes  it  with  that  of  the 
following  year,  if  the  latter  is  of  a  better  quality;  if  he  cannot 
mix  it  all,  he  may  use  it  for  ullage.  In  the  same  way,  if  he  has 
new  white  wines  which  become  discolored  and  turn  yellow,  he 
mingles  them  with  very  dark  red  wines,  which  then  become  more 
agreeable  to  drink. 

It  is  said  that  the  tithe  wines  used  to  be  of  superior  quality. 
In  certain  communes  of  France,  the  inhabitants  contributed  to 
the  priest's  cask  a  certain  amount  of  their  new  wine,  and  this 
wine  which  represented  a  mixture  of  all  the  wines  of  the  com- 
mune, had  the  reputation  of  being  superior  to  any  one  of  the 
others. 

And  the  following  case,  quoted  by  Maigne,  is  given  for  what 
it  is  worth.  A  cask  lay  in  a  cellar  into  which  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  throw  the  leavings  of  all  kinds  of  wine,  such  as  from 
broken  bottles,  drippings,  etc.  It  was  intended  to  use  the  liquid 
upon  diseased  trees,  but  it  was  for  some  time  forgotten.  When 
found  and  brought  out,  the  cellar-man  tasted  the  singular  mixture 
out  of  curiosity.  It  was  found  to  be  a  delicious  liquor,  which 
gave  delight  at  dessert;  and  it  was  with  true  grief  that  they  saw 
its  end  approach ! 

In  order  to  perform  the  operation  successfully,  an  experienced 
man  is  required,  who  will  be  guided  by  his  educated  taste;  and 


CUTTING  OR  MIXING   WINES. 

therefore,  precise  rules  cannot  be  laid  down,  but  there* 
general  principles  which  it  may  be  useful  to  state. 

Wines  of  the  same  General  Nature  and  Flavor  should  be 
used,  and  two  of  such  wines  may  nevertheless  be  deficient  in 
some  particular  respects,  so  that  by  mixing,  the  defects  of  the 
two  will  be  corrected.  Such  wines  are  mixed,  because  they  are 
said  to  marry  better,  and  produce  a  more  homogeneous  liquid 
than  those  of  different  natures. 

Fine  Wines. — All  agree  that  fine  wines  which  have  a  bouquet 
and  a  future  are  best  left  in  their  natural  condition,  for  their 
distinctive  character  will  be  destroyed  by  mixing  with  wines  of  a 
different  nature  and  quality.  Boireau  says  that  experience  proves 
that  if  such  wines  are  mixed  while  young,  even  with  old  wine  of 
good  quality,  they  will  never  acquire  that  degree  of  fineness 
which  they  would  have  obtained  if  left  by  themselves;  that  they 
sooner  loose  their  fruity  flavor,  and  are  more  liable  to  make  a 
deposit  in  the  bottles. 

There  are  cases,  however,  when  cutting  becomes  necessary,  as 
when  the  wine  from  being  kept  too  long  in  casks,  has  commenced 
to  decline,  has  lost  its  fruity  flavor,  has  become  acrid  and  dry; 
when  made  in  a  bad,  cold  season;  and  when  they  are  too  poor, 
green,  or  too  feeble  to  keep  well. 

When  wines  are  too  old  and  worn  out,  they  should  be  fortified 
with  young  wines  of  the  same  kind,  produced,  if  possible,  from 
the  same  vineyard,  one  or  two,  or  at  most,  three  years  old,  and 
possessing  great  mellowness.  The  amount  of  new  wine  to  be 
used  will  depend  upon  the  degree  of  degeneracy  and  the  length 
of  time  they  are  to  be  kept.  (See  Degeneration.) 

Poor,  weak  wines,  whose  keeping  qualities  are  doubted,  should 
be  mixed  with  young  wine  of  a  good  year,  firm  and  full-bodied, 
possessing  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  natural  flavor. 

The  foregoing  is  intended  to  apply  to  feeble,  delicate  wines 
which  have  a  flavor  and  bouquet,  but  which  are  not  too  green. 
Wines  which  have  a  future  should  not  be  sacrificed  by  using 
them  to  fortify  others  which  are  both  feeble  and  green,  for  the 
excess  of  tartaric  acid  contained  in  the  latter  will  totally  destroy 


174  CUTTING  OE  MIXING   WINES. 

the  mellowness  of  those  used  to  fortify  them.     To  mix  with  such 
wines,  clean-tasting  wines  of  the  south  should  be  used. 

If  the  wines  are  too  green,  a  portion  of  the  acid  may  be  neu- 
tralized, as  described  under  the  head  of  Greenness. 

Ordinary  Wines  should  be  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  give 
them  as  much  as  possible  the  qualities  sought  in  fine  wines,  and 
they  should  be  cut  with  suitable  wines  of  the  same  age  to  give 
them  bouquet,  flavor,  and  mellowness,  or  at  least  to  remove  their 
excessive  dry  ness — a  very  difficult  thing  to  do.  It  maybe  accom- 
plished, in  part,  by  mixing  them  with  wines  of  the  same  growth, 
but  whose  bouquet  and  flavor  are  very  expansive,  and  by  adding 
neutral,  mellow  wines. 

Sufficient  Time  Must  be  Given  to  the  mixture  to  allow  the 
different  wines  employed  to  become  intimately  combined,  or  their 
different  flavors  may  be  detected,  which  will  not  be  the  case  when 
thoroughly  amalgamated. 

When  Large  Quantities  of  wine  are  used,  the  mixture  is  more 
nearly  perfect  than  if  mingled,  cask  by  cask;  and  by  operating 
upon  the  whole  amount  at  one  time  in  a  large  vat,  a  perfect  uni- 
formity will  be  insured. 

An  Entirely  New  Wine  should  not  be  mixed  with  an  old  one, 
as  there  is  not  sufficient  affinity  between  them. 

In  an  old  wine,  says  Machard,  all  the  constituents  are  in  a 
state  of  complete  quiet;  they  are  well  combined  (melted)  and 
homogeneous.  If  there  is  mixed  with  it  a  wine  whose  principles 
are  equally  well  combined,  no  ulterior  action  will  result.  But  if 
new  principles  are  introduced,  elements  of  a  different  nature,  the 
equilibrium  will  be  disturbed,  there  will  infallibly  result  a  recip- 
rocal action  and  disorganization. 

Yery  Green  Wines  should  not  be  mixed  with  those  containing 
much  sugar  for  similar  reasons,  for  the  mixture  is  liable  to  be 
thrown  into  a  state  of  violent  fermentation,  which  it  will  be 
difficult  to  arrest.  The  reason  given  is  that  the  green  wine  con- 
tains a  good  deal  of  ferment;  but  if  both  the  wines  are  produced 


CUTTING  OR  MIXING   WINES.  175 

in  the  south,  where  the  ferment  contained  in  the  dry  wine  is  not 
abundant,  the  mixture  may  safely  be  made.  So  that,  after  all, 
we  get  back  to  the  principle,  that  wines  of  widely  different 
natures  and  origins  should  not  be  mixed,  but  keeping  this  in 
in  mind,  a  sweetish  and  a  dry  wine  may  be  used  to  correct  each 
other. 

White  Wines  may  sometimes  be  mixed  with  advantage  with 
red  ones,  as  before  mentioned,  but  the  former  should  not  be 
employed  too  liberally. 

Diseased  Wines  must  not  be  mixed  with  sound  ones,  except 
in  the  few  cases  mentioned  under  Defects  and  Diseases.  It  is 
especially  dangerous  to  cut  a  soured  or  pricked  wine  with  a  sound 
one,  for  the  whole  mass  is  liable  to  be  lost. 

Mixing  Grapes. — It  is  doubtless  always  better,  when  prac- 
ticable, to  correct  defects  by  mixing  the  grapes  and  fermenting 
the  different  kinds  together,  for  then  a  more  homogeneous  wine 
will  be  formed;  and,  therefore,  the  intelligent  grape  grower  will 
find  out  the  defects  of  his  wine,  and  remedy  them  by  planting 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  other  varieties  for  the  purpose. 

Precautions. — Care,  however,  must  always  be  taken  not  to 
spoil  a  good  wine  by  cutting  it  with  a  very  common  one,  nor  by 
mixing  poor  varieties  with  grapes  of  fine  kinds. 

Cheap  wines,  however,  for  immediate  consumption,  may  admit 
a  certain  proportion  of  poor,  common  wine,  into  their  composi- 
tion, without  inconvenience.  In  that  case,  the  ferments  of  the 
common  sorts  will  not  have  time  to  act  and  produce  serious 
results. 

If,  however,  they  are  to  be  kept  for  some  time,  or  bottled,  the 
effect  will  be  bad,  for  the  ferments  always  abundant  in  wines 
from  the  commoner  varieties,  are  liable  to  become  decomposed, 
and  cause  a  disagreeable,  nauseating  flavor. 

Whenever  there  is  a  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  cellar-man  as  to 
whether  certain  wines  should  be  mixed,  it  is  always  best  to  make 
a  small  sample  first,  clarify  it,  and  leave  it  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time,  and  judge  of  the  result,  before  operating  upon  a  large 
quantity. 


176  LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE. 


CHAPTEE  XVIII. 

WINE  LEES,  MAEC,  AND  PIQUETTE. 

The  Residue  of  Wine  Making,  pomace  and  lees,  are  often 
placed  immediately  in  the  still,  and  their  alcohol  distilled  off 
directly,  but  the  result  is  better  if  the  wine  is  first  extracted, 
and  distilled  without  putting  the  residue  into  the  boiler,  for  it  is 
liable  to  burn  and  give  a  disagreeable  burnt  flavor  to  the  brandy. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Boireau,  so  often  quoted,  for  what 
follows : 

WINE     LEES. 

The  Lees  should  not  be  neglected,  because,  for  want  of  proper 
care,  the  wine  which  is  extracted  from  them  will  contract  a  very 
disagreeable  taste,  which  is  due  to  its  too  long  sojourn  on  the 
deposit,  and  which  would  be  prevented  by  drawing  it  off  in  time. 

Therefore,  in  order  that  the  wine  extracted  from  them  should 
not  lose  all  its  value,  the  lees  should  receive  particular  attention, 
and  be  stored  in  places  free  from  variations  of  temperature. 

The  Quantity  of  Wine  Contained  in  the  Lees  varies  from 
30  to  90  per  cent.  From  those  of  fined  wines  an  average  of  70 
per  cent,  may  be  extracted  without  pressing. 

The  Dry  Parts  of  the  Sediment  contain  a  great  quantity  of 
insoluble  matters,  tartar,  or  argol,  several  other  vegetable  and 
mineral  salts,  divers  compounds,  ferments,  mucilaginous  matters, 
and  the  residue  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters  (albumen  and 
gelatine),  which  have  been  employed  in  fining. 

An  Analysis  of  Dry  Lees  by  Mr.  Braconnot,  a  distinguished 
chemist,  establishes  the  presence  of  the  following  substances: 
bitartrate  of  potash  (cream  of  tartar),  tartrate  of  lime,  tartrate 
of  magnesia,  nitrogenous  animal  matter,  fatty  substances,  color- 
ing matter,  gum,  and  tannin. 

The  Composition  of  Dry  Lees  varies  with  the  age,  nature, 
and  quality  of  the  wine  which  produces  them;  but  in  all,  the 


LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE.  177 

bitartrate  of  potash  or  cream  of  tartar  predominates.  The  lees 
of  mellow  wines  contain  mucilages,  and  we  find  in  the  lees 
deposited  by  sweet  wines  great  quantities  of  saccharine  matter 
which  may  be  utilized.  The  different  uses  to  which  dried  lees 
may  be  put  will  be  mentioned  further  on. 

Treatment  of  the  Lees. — Lees  will  settle  by  repose,  but  the 
wine  which  comes  from  them,  if  left  long  upon  the  heavy  lees, 
contracts  a  disagreeable  flavor,  owing  to  its  contact  with  the 
insoluble  matters  forming  the  sediment,  and  with  the  ferments 
found  in  the  lees  with  the  residue  of  the  substances  used  in 
fining.  The  surface  wine  is  often  in  a  state  of  fermentation,  and 
remains  turbid,  contracting  at  the  same  time  a  disagreeable  bit- 
terness, unless  soon  withdrawn  from  the  influence  of  the  ferments. 

By  proper  care  and  attention,  not  only  can  all  the  liquid  be 
extracted  from  the  lees,  but  the  wine  so  extracted  will  have  no 
bad  flavor,  no  vice,  in  a  word,  will  partake  of  the  same  qualities 
as  the  wine  from  which  the  heavy  lees  were  deposited.  The  casks 
into  which  they  are  to  be  put  should  be  washed  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  those  destined  to  contain  limpid  wine,  and  double  the 
quantity  of  a  sulphur  match  employed  in  the  case  of  racking  new 
red  wines,  should  be  burned  in  each.  As  fast  as  the  casks  are 
emptied  in  drawing  off,  the  lees  are  turned  into  a  pail,  and 
immediately  poured  into  the  cask  intended  for  them.  In  empty- 
ing them  into  the  pail,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  introduce  dirt, 
mould,  etc.,  and  if  there  is  debris  around  the  bung-hole,  it  should 
be  swept  away  before  removing  the  bung.  As  soon  as  the  cask 
is  full  of  lees,  it  should  be  stored,  bung  up,  in  a  proper  place, 
as  mentioned,  and  should  then  be  ulled  and  bunged,  and  the 
date  of  storing  may  be  marked  on  it,  with  the  kind  and  age  of 
the  wine  from  which  it  came. 

When  the  casks  are  not  completely  filled  the  same  day,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  leave  them  with  ullage,  they  should  be  bunged 
tight,  after  having  again  burned  a  square  of  a  match  in  each} 
and  the  sulphuring  should  be  renewed  as  often  as  the  lees  are 
added,  if  left  so  for  several  days,  in  order  to  avoid  access  of  air, 
and  to  prevent  the  action  of  ferments.  In  a  word,  casks  con- 


178  LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE. 

taining  lees,  without  being  full,  should  always  be  well  bunged 
and  sulphured,  and  guarded  from  variations  of  temperature. 

The  casks,  when  stored,  should  be  regularly  ulled  once  a  week 
with  limpid  wine,  and  re-bunged,  and  after  two  weeks'  repose, 
the  first  drawing  off  takes  place,  and  should  be  renewed  once  or 
twice  every  month.  All  the  clear  wine  will  be  drawn  off  at  each 
racking,  by  following  the  precautions  indicated  further  on.  By 
drawing  off  thus  frequently,  fermentation,  to  which  such  wine 
is  subject,  will  be  avoided,  even  in  summer.  Thus,  also,  will 
be  avoided  the  disagreeable  taste  of  the  lees,  of  acrity  and  bitter- 
ness, which  wine  contracts  when  left  long  on  the  deposit,  and 
moreover,  much  more  clear  wine  will  be  withdrawn.  Lees  from 
diseased  wine  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  rest,  but  should  be 
put  aside  and  treated  according  to  the  malady  by  which  the  wine 
was  affected. 

Extraction  of  Wine  from  the  Lees. — Lees  preserved  under 
the  conditions  indicated  naturally  free  themselves  from  a  great 
part  of  the  foreign  substances  which  they  contain,  by  rest,  for 
they  are  insoluble,  and  specifically  heavier  than  wine,  and  settle 
of  their  own  accord.  The  wine  should  not  be  fined  till  drawn 
from  the  heavy  lees. 

The  racking  off  of  the  clear  wine  may  be  performed  in  two 
ways,  either  by  the  use  of  a  glass  siphon  or  of  a  faucet.  For 
the  first  rackings  the  glass  siphon  is  most  appropriate,  and  by  its 
use  the  boring  of  holes  high  up  in  the  end  of  the  cask  is  avoided. 
It  is  introduced  about  eight  inches  into  the  full  cask,  a  proper 
vessel  to  catch  the  wine  is  placed  under  the  end,  with  another 
vessel  close  at  hand,  and  the  wine  is  started  by  the  breath;  but 
the  siphon  must  be  held  with  the  hand,  or  otherwise  sustained  so 
that  it  will  not  go  too  deep  into  the  cask.  By  holding  a  candle 
below,  it  can  be  seen  if  the  wine  is  any  way  clear;  and  as  long 
as  it  runs  sufficiently  limpid,  the  siphon  is  lowered  into  the  cask, 
little  by  little,  till  the  level  of  the  turbid  wine  is  nearly  reached. 
When  one  bucket  is  filled,  the  other  is  slipped  under  the  stream 
without  stopping  it.  Two  men  are  usually  required,  one  to  attend 
the  siphon,  and  the  other  to  empty  the  buckets.  As  soon  as  the 


LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE.  179 

wine  runs  muddy,  it  is  stopped.  If  the  cask  of  lees  is  suffi- 
ciently elevated,  the  stem  of  the  siphon  may  run  into  a  funnel 
placed  in  the  empty  cask. 

When  the  casks  have  all  been  drawn  from,  the  remaining  heavy 
lees  are  filled  into  those  containing  the  greater  quantity,  so  as  to 
transfer  the  least  quantity.  Before  filling,  however,  the  casks 
should  have  a  double  square  of  sulphur  match  burned  in  each, 
to  prevent  subsequent  fermentations. 

The  use  of  the  faucet  is  preferred,  when  the  lees  are  thick,  and 
the  casks  which  contain  them  are  near  the  ground,  and  are  only 
used  for  storing  lees.  In  the  latter  case,  the  injury  to  the  cask 
by  boring  holes  in  the  head  at  several  heights,  is  of  little  conse- 
quence. A  greater  quantity  of  wine  may  be  drawn  off  by  the 
use  of  the  faucet  than  with  the  glass  siphon,  but  it  is  generally 
less  clear  than  if  carefully  done  with  the  latter;  and  one  man  can 
do  the  work. 

First,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  how  far  down  the  clear  wine 
reaches,  by  means  of  gimlet  holes,  and  the  faucet  hole  should 
then  be  bored  just  above  the  level  of  the  heavy  lees.  If  the 
faucet  has  been  placed  too  low,  the  sediment  which  runs  through 
it  at  first  may  be  put  aside. 

After  the  drawing  of  the  clear  wine  has  been  repeated  several 
times,  and  the  thick  lees  united  as  above  mentioned,  the  casks 
should  not  be  filled  until  heavily  sulphured,  and  they  must  not 
be  disturbed,  for  the  least  agitation  may  stir  up  the  sediment 
already  formed,  and  cause  bad  flavor  in  the  wine,  and  even  pro- 
duce putrid  fermentation,  especially  in  those  from  fined  wines 
which  contain  large  quantities  of  animal  matter  introduced  in 
the  finings.  Casks  emptied  of  heavy  lees  should  be  washed  with 
a  chain,  to  remove  the  sediment  clinging  to  the  inside,  which  must 
not  be  allowed  to  dry  on. 

Fining  Wines  Extracted  from  the  Lees.— These  wines  often 
are  not  sufficiently  clear;  and  they  are  generally  more  difficult  to 
clarify  completely  by  the  usual  methods  than  the  wines  which 
produced  the  lees. 


180  LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE. 

It  is  noticeable  that  these  wines  have  less  color  and  less  alcohol 
than  other  wines  produced  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  difficulty  in  obtaining  their  complete  clarification  arises 
from  the  great  quantity  of  insoluble  matter  which  they  still  hold 
in  suspension,  and  their  relative  feebleness  in  alcohol  and  tannin. 

The  want  of  color  is  due  to  the  mechanical  action  of  the 
insoluble  matters  which  the  lees  contain;  these  matters  in  pre- 
cipitating carry  down  a  part  of  the  coloring  matter  remaining  in 
solution  in  the  liquid.  It  follows  that  the  older  the  lees,  and 
the  oftener  the  wine  has  been  drawn  from  them,  the  feebler  the 
color. 

Red  Wines  extracted  from  the  lees,  to  be  completely  clarified, 
should  be  fined  with  a  heavy  dose  of  albumen  (the  whites  of 
16  or  18  eggs  to  100  gallons),  previously  well  beaten  up  in  a  pint 
of  water  in  which  half  an  ounce  of  sea  salt  has  been  dissolved  to 
give  it  density.  If  the  alcoholic  strength  is  below  nine  per  cent, 
they  should  be  fortified  by  the  addition  of  two  or  three  quarts 
of  brandy  or  alcohol  to  each  100  gallons.  Bed  wines  from  this 
source  should  not  be  fined  with  gelatine,  or  it  will  diminish  the 
color  too  much. 

White  Wines  of  this  kind  may  be  fined  with  albumen  also,  if 
strong  in  alcohol;  but  otherwise,  they  should  be  fined  with  a 
heavy  dose  of  gelatine,  three  tablets.  But  before  fining  they 
must  be  tannified  by  adding  4  or  5  gallons  of  tannified  wine,  or 
an  ounce  of  tannin  for  each  100  gallons. 

Wines  from  lees  should  remain  on  the  finings  only  long  enough 
to  precipitate  the  matters  used,  about  ten  days;  after  which  they 
must  be  carefully  racked,  and  cared  for  like  other  wines. 

Pressing  the  Thick  Sediment.— After  the  lees  have  undergone 
three  or  four  semi-monthly  rackings,  the  rest  of  the  wine  which 
they  contain  may  be  extracted  by  pressure,  and  this  amounts  on 
the  average  to  fifty  per  cent.  More  wine  might  be  extracted  by 
further  racking,  but  by  allowing  the  wine  to  remain  longer  in 
contact  with  the  finings  and  other  sediment,  it  will  contract  the 
disagreeable  flavors  already  alluded  to,  which  may  be  avoided  by 


LEES,  MARC,  PIQUEITE.  181 

pressing  the  lees  after  the  first  three  or  four  rackings;  and  an 
excellent  result  is  obtained  by  using  a  filter  press  after  the  first 
racking,  and  the  wine  obtained  will  have  no  bad  taste. 

The  pressing  is  performed  in  small  sacks  about  eighteen  inches 
long.  They  should  be  made  of  cotton  cloth,  as  those  made  from 
hemp,  even  after  being  used  several  times,  give  a  disagreeable 
flavor  to  the  wines  passed  through  them. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  provide  more  than  sacks  enough  for  one 
cask  of  lees.  The  cloth  of  which  they  are  made  should  be  fine, 
and  of  close  and  regular  texture. 

To  make  a  cheap  press,  one  head  of  a  cask  is  removed,  and 
the  pieces  of  this  head  are  fastened  together  by  nailing  on  two 
cross  pieces  to  keep  it  in  form,  and  enough  of  the  wood  around 
the  edge  is  removed  to  allow  it  to  pass  freely  into  the  cask  as  a 
follower.  The  cask  is  then  placed  upright,  and  a  hole  is  bored 
in  one  of  the  staves  close  to  the  lower  head,  into  which  is  placed 
a  faucet.  This  cask,  which  is  to  contain  the  sacks,  may  be  placed 
high  enough  to  allow  the  wine  to  run  from  the  faucet  directly 
into  the  bung  of  another  cask  to  hold  the  wine.  If  the  casks 
containing  the  lees  are  placed  on  a  horse  or  platform,  the  latter 
may  be  run  from  the  faucet-hole  directly  into  the  sacks,  which 
may  be  fastened  to  the  chime  with  small  hooks,  and  be  kept  open 
with  the  hand  or  a  small  hoop.  A  dish  should  be  placed  under 
before  withdrawing  the  spigot.  Or,  to  avoid  fouling  the  outside 
of  the  sack  with  the  lees,  they  may  first  be  run  into  a  tub,  and 
dipped  into  the  sacks,  the  tub  being  provided  with  a  sack-holder. 
As  soon  as  a  sack  is  sufficiently  filled,  it  should  be  strongly  tied 
with  a  bow-knot  which  can  be  easily  untied,  and  laid  in  the  cask 
provided;  and  a  few  small  sticks  should  be  placed  over  the  inner 
end  of  the  faucet  so  that  it  may  not  be  stopped  by  a  sack  corning 
in  contact  with  it.  Sacks  are  placed  in  the  cask  till  it  is  full. 
The  faucet  is  left  open,  so  that  the  wine,  as  fast  as  filtered,  may 
run  through  a  hose  into  a  well  washed  and  well  sulphured  cask, 
placed  in  position  to  receive  it. 

When  the  cask  is  full  of  sacks,  the  cover  is  placed  on  them 
and  they  are  allowed  to  drain  for  several  hours,  weights  being 


182  LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE. 

gradually  placed  upon  the  cover  or  follower.  Further  pressure 
is  applied  by  means  of  a  lever  rigged  for  the  purpose,  one  end 
made  firm,  and  the  other  having  weights  attached. 

It  is  best  that  the  pressure  be  gradually  applied,  leaving  the 
sacks  to  drain  for  several  hours,  then  applying  the  lever,  but 
loading  it  with  weights-  several  hours  later,  or  the  next  day. 

When  the  wine  no  longer  runs,  say  twenty-four  hours  after 
loading  the  lever,  the  sacks  are  removed. 

If  the  lees  are  not  very  thick,  but  little  will  be  found  in  the 
sacks,  and  they  may  be  refilled  without  removing  it,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  second  pressure.  Then  they  must  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  water.  Lye  should  not  be  used. 

Where  large  quantities  of  lees  are  to  be  pressed,  larger  presses 
may  be  used,  vats  being  employed  instead  of  casks. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  all  the  wine  by  simple  filtration  with- 
out pressure,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  filters  soon  become  foul, 
and  the  wine  ceases  to  pass  through. 

If  the  first  wine  which  runs  off  is  turbid,  it  may  be  put  by 
itself,  and  the  clear  wine  caught  separately.  It  is  apt  to  run 
turbid  when  additional  weight  is  applied. 

Use  of  Dry  Lees. — They  have  a  certain  value,  and  after  being 
removed  from  the  sacks  they  may  be  sold  to  the  manufacturers 
of  cream  of  tartar,  if  they  are  virgin  lees.  Lees  from  fined  wines 
are  of  little  value  for  this  purpose.  They  may  be  dried  on  well- 
aired  floors,  or  in  the  sun.  They  are  also  used  for  the  production 
of  pearlash  by  burning  them.  The  ash  produced  is  of  a  greenish 
gray  color,  and  is  crude  pearlash.  Good  lees,  perfectly  dry,  pro- 
duce about  30  per  cent,  of  this  alkali. 

Lees  are  also  valuable  as  a  fertilizer.  Those  from  sweet  wine 
contain  considerable  sugar,  which  may  be  utilized  by  fermenting 
and  distilling  the  alcohol  produced.  This,  however,  will  render 
them  less  valuable  for  making  cream  of  tartar,  a  portion  of  which 
will  be  dissolved  by  washing. 

MARC,    OR    POMACE PIQUETTE. 

Marc,  or  Pomace,  is  the  residue  remaining  in  the  vat  after  the 
fermentation  of  red  wine,  or  in  the  press,  in  making  white  wine. 


LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETTE.  183 

After  being  pressed,  it  is  used  in  many  parts  of  France  to  make 
a  weak  wine  called  piquette  t  for  the  use  of  the  laborers.  For  this 
purpose  are  utilized  all  the  soluble  principles  remaining  in  the 
marc,  by  the  following  treatment: 

1.  The  Unfermented  Pomace  of  White  or  of  Ked  Wine  not 
Entirely  Fermented,  is  well  broken  and  crumbled  up  so  as  to 
finely  divide  it,  and  introduced  into  tuns,  which   are  then  com- 
pletely filled  with  water,  or  into  a  fermenting  vat,  adding  double 
its  weight   of  water.      After  giving  it  a  thorough  stirring  and 
mixing,  the  first  piquette  is  drawn  off.      After  a  maceration  of 
three  of  four  days,  renewing  the  water  several  times,  the  saccha- 
rine matter  and  soluble  salts  which  the  marc  contains  are  com- 
pletely removed.     Piquette  is  fermented  in  casks  and  cared  for 
like  new  wine.    The  weakest  is  first  consumed. 

Or  the  marc  may  be  pressed  and  put  into  barrels,  keeping  it  in 
as  solid  a  mass  as  possible;  the  surface  is  then  covered  with  sand 
and  the  casks  closed  air-tight.  Piquette  may  then  be  made  as 
needed,  using  the  marc  of  one  cask,  washing  with  water  till  it  is 
exhausted. 

2.  The  Fermented  Marc  of  Red  Wine  is  treated  as  follows : 
After  pressing,  it  is  immediately  put  into  a  large  vat.     Double 
its  weight  of  water  is  added,  and  after  a  complete  stirring,  it  is 
allowed  to  macerate  one  or  two  days  at  most.     The  first  piquette 
is  then  drained  off,  and  water  is  put  in  several  times  till  the 
soluble  matters  are  removed. 

Pressed  marc  is  also  used  for  forage,  mixing  it  with  half  the 
quantity  of  hay. 

As  for  making  wine  from  marc  by  adding  sweetened  water,  see 
Watering  and  Sugaring  Must. 

The  following  method  of  washing  the  marc  is  from  an 
article  on  the  Distillation  of  Marc,  by  J.  Pezeyre,  printed  in 
Le  Parfait  Vigneron,  Almanack  du  Moniteur  Vinicole,  1881 : 

Six  vats  or  barrels  are  set  up  side  by  side,  each  provided  with 
a  faucet,  and  a  movable  cover.  The  faucet  is  protected  inside, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  fermenting  vat. 


184  LEES,  MARC,  PIQUETIE. 

To  thoroughly  exhaust  the  marc,  it  should  be  washed  with  six 
times  its  weight  of  water,  or  100  Ibs.  of  pomace  require  72 
gallons  of  water. 

The  vats  being  arranged,  are  charged  with  marc,  which  is 
pressed  down  till  it  fills  the  vat  to  within  about  ten  inches  of  the 
top.  The  marc  is  kept  submerged  in  the  usual  way,  by  a  false, 
perforated  head. 

The  first  vat  is  filled  with  cold  water,  and  left  to  rest  for  two 
hours.  The  liquid  is  then  drawn  off  and  filled  into  vat  No.  2. 
No.  1  is  then  re-filled  with  fresh  water.  When  the  liquid  in  No.  2 
has  remained  for  two  hours,  it  is  drawn  off  and  put  into  No.  3. 
No.  1  is  then  emptied  into  No.  2,  and  filled  with  water  a  third 
time.  The  maceration  in  No.  3  having  continued  for  two  hours, 
its  liquid  is  drawn  off  and  poured  into  No.  4;  No.  3  is  filled 
from  No.  2,  and  this  from  No.  1,  which  is  filled  the  fourth  time 
with  water.  No.  5  is  filled  from  No.  4,  and  each  vat  is  filled 
from  the  preceding  one,  until  No.  1  has  received  in  water  six 
times  the  weight  of  the  marc  contained  in  it. 

The  liquid  from  No.  5  is  poured  into  No.  6,  and  after  two 
hours  is  drawn  from  this  last  vat  into  the  still. 

When  the  wine  has  been  drawn  from  the  last  vat,  the  marc  in 
No.  1  having  been  washed  six  times  with  its  weight  of  water,  is 
exhausted  of  all  its  alcohol.  It  is  then  re-filled  with  marc,  and 
becomes  No.  6  of  the  series,  and  *is  filled  with  the  liquid  from 
No.  5.  Each  number  is  thereby  carried  around  the  circle, 
becoming  successively  No.  6. 

In  this  way  the  pomace  is,  little  by  little,  deprived  of  its 
alcohol,  and  the  liquid  coming  from  No.  6  is  rich  in  spirit,  and 
when  delivered  to  the  still  is  nearly  equal  in  strength  to  the 
original  wine. 

When  there  is  but  little  marc  to  operate  upon,  the  liquid  may 
be  drawn  off  into  buckets,  and  so  filled  into  the  vats;  but  time 
and  labor  may  be  saved  by  using  a  pump  and  hose. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WTNE.  185 


CHAPTEE  XIX. 

THE    COMPOSITION    OF    WINE. 

Generally. — Wine  is  not  only  composed  of  alcohol  and  water, 
which  are  the  two  most  prominent  ingredients,  but  a  great  num- 
ber of  other  substances  have  been  recognized,  and  others  still 
are  supposed  to  exist.  Some  substances  which  are  found  in  one 
wine  may  not  exist  in  another,  or  it  may  exist  in  a  greater  or  less 
quantity.  We  know  that  alcohol,  water,  and  acids  exist  in  all 
wines,  in  varying  quantities;  that  some  are  sweet,  and  contain 
sugar,  and  that  others  are  dry,  thoroughly  fermented,. and  contain 
none.  We  also  know  that  the  alcohol  in  different  wjnes  may 
vary  from  4  or  5  per  cent,  in  piquette  made  by  washing  the 
pomace  with  water,  to  20  or  25  per  cent,  in  the  more  strongly 
fortified.  And  we  know  generally  how  a  wine  is  modified  as  to 
its  taste  and  effect  on  the  system,  by  such  substances  as  water, 
alcohol,  sugar,  and  acid;  but  there  are  many  substances  whose 
effect  is  but  little  known,  and  others  again  only  known  by  their 
effects.  The  science  of  chemistry  has  not  yet  been  able  to  lay 
hold  of  them. 

Substances  Recognized. — The  following  table  from  Maumene 
indicates  the  different  substances  contained  in  different  wines,  the 
letter  F  indicating  those  produced  by  fermentation,  the  others 
existing  in  the  juice  of  the  grape.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
amount  of  acid  tartrate  of  potash  (cream  of  tartar)  mentioned  is 
5.5  grammes  per  litre  at  most,  and  this  is  the  quantity  contained 
in  a  new  wine,  old  wines  containing  only  one  or  two  grammes  per 
litre,  and  even  less.  This  salt  is  contained  in  the  grapes,  and  is 
soluble  in  water,  but  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and,  therefore,  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  precipitated  as  the  alcohol  increases  by  fermen- 
tation, and  is  deposited  with  the  lees.  The  Eeport  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California,  Department  of  Agriculture,  referred  to  in 
the  preface,  shows  the  amount  contained  in  different  California 
wines  and  their  lees. 
13 


186 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 


Grammes. 

f  Water 9  volumes,         900  to  891 

Common  Alcohol  (Absolute  or  Pure),  F.  i    volume,  80  to    79 

Other  Alcohols   (Butyric,  Amylic,  etc.) F.   " 

Aldehydes  (several  ?)    F. 

Ethers    (Acetic,     Butyric,    oenanthic,  etc.),  con- 
tributing principally  to  the  bouquet F. 

Essential  Oils  ( several)    ...  

I   Grape  Sugar  (Dextrose  and   Levulose) 
Mannite F. 

|    Mucilage,   Gum,  and   Dextrin . .    

Pectin 

Coloring  Matters  (oenocyanine) 

Fatty  Matters  (and  Wax  ?) 

Glycerin F. 

Nitrogenous    Matters    (Albumin,    Gliadin,    etc.) 
Ferments 

I 

("Acid  Tartrafe  of  Potash  (5.5  grammes 

Neutral  at  most) 

Bodies  *>  '  Neutral  Tartrate  of  Lime    

^   I          "  "  Ammonia 

3    I  Acid  Tartrate  of   Alumina  (simple,    or 

&\       with  Potash.) 

fcfl     Acid   Tartrate  of  Iron  (simple,  or  with 

>         .Potash.) 

Racemates L 

Acetates,  Propionates,   Butyrates,   Lac- 
[      tates,  etc F. 


Free  Acids. 


f  Sulphates .  . 

Nitrates  . .  . 

Phosphates. 

Silicates  . . . 

Chlorides  . . 

Bromides  . . 

Iodides  

[  Fluorides    . 


With  a  base  of  Potash, 
Soda,  Lime,  Magnesia, 
Alumina,  Oxide  of  Iron, 
Ammonia.. . 


Carbonic  (2.5  grammes  at  most)    F. 

Tartaric  and  Racemic  (Gluco-tartaric  ?)    

Malic 

Citric 

Tannic 

Metapectic. . . F. 

Acetic F. 

Lactic F. 

Succinic F. 

Butyric F. 

Valeric?...  ..F. 


1000 — 1000 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 


187 


A  few  of  the  more  important  ones  will  be  briefly  noticed. 

Alcohol  is  considerably  lighter  than  water,  and  from  the 
specific  gravity  of  any  mixture  of  alcohol  and  pure  water,  the 
quantity  of  spirit  contained  in  it  can  readily  be  ascertained.  (See 
Table  IV.) 

To  Ascertain  the  Alcoholic  Strength  of  Wine,  if  it  con- 
sisted of  a  mixture  of  water  and  alcohol  alone,  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  learn  its  specific  gravity;  but  as  all  wines  contain 
other  substances  which  affect  the  weight  of  the  liquid,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  separate  the  alcohol  from  the  other  matters  by  distil- 
lation; then  by  adding  Water  enough  to  make  up  the  original 
volume  of  the  wine  assayed,  we  will  have  simply  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  water. 

Small  stills  are  sold  in  the  market,  with  the  necessary  instru- 
ments accompanying  them,  with  which  to  perform  the  operation. 
In  the  accompanying  figure  (43),  which  shows  a  French  still,  L 

is  a  spirit  lamp,  B  a 
glass  boiler  with  a 
perforated  stopper,  S 
a  worm,  contained  in 
the  cooler  D,  which 
is  kept  filled  with 
cold  water,  as  a  con- 
denser; t  is  a  rubber 
tube  connecting  the 
boiler  with  the  con- 
denser, tightly  fitted 
to  the  stopper  of  the 
French  Still.  former,  and  also  to 

the  end  of  the  worm.  E  is  a  small  hydrometer-jar,  of  glass,  with 
a  foot,  for  measuring  the  wine  to  be  distilled,  and  for  catching 
the  distillate  as  it  runs  from  the  worm.  It  has  three  marks — the 
upper  one,  m,  indicating  the  height  to  which  it  is  to  be  filled 
with  the  wine,  and  also  a  i  mark  and  a  i  mark.  Sometimes  it  is 
provided  with  a  groove  along  one  side  to  carry  the  thermometer. 


188  COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 

A  represents  the  hydrometer,  or  alcoholometer,  being  a  spindle, 
usually  of  glass,  similar  in  form  to  the  saccharometer  (which  see), 
except  that  the  zero  mark  to  which  the  alcoholometer  sinks  in 
distilled  water,  is  at  the  lower  end  of  the  stem,  and  the  degrees 
are  numbered  from  zero  to  the  upper  end,  each  figure  represent- 
ing one  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  T  is  a  thermometer,  in  its  place  in 
the  jar  with  the  hydrometer;  t'  is  a  small  glass  pipette  to  assist  in 
filling  the  jar  just  to  the  mark. 

To  make  use  of  the  instruments,  measure  in  the  jar,  E,  the 
wine  to  be  distilled,  by  filling  it  up  exactly  to  the  upper  mark,  m, 
using  the  pipette,  t' ,  by  which  a  little  of  the  liquid  can  be  sucked 
up,  and  let  out,  drop  by  drop,  by  increasing  and  diminishing  the 
pressure  of  the  finger  applied  to  the  upper  opening.  The  wine 
so  measured  is  poured  into  the  boiler,  JB,  draining  out  the  last 
drop,  or  the  little  remaining  may  be  rinsed  out  with  a  little 
water,  which  is  poured  into  the  boiler  with  the  wine  without 
affecting  the  result.  The  boiler  is  then  placed  over  the  lamp  and 
connected  with  the  condenser  by  means  of  the  rubber  tube,  and 
the  condenser  filled  with  cold  water.  Light  the  lamp,  and  place 
the  now  empty  jar  under  the  lower  end  of  the  worm.  The  vapor 
of  the  alcohol  first  passing  from  the  boiler  through  the  rubber 
tube  into  the  condenser,  will  there  condense,  and  the  liquid  run- 
ning from  the  worm  into  the  test  tube  will  be  almost  pure  alcohol, 
but  as  the  process  goes  on,  more  and  more  water  comes  out  with 
the  alcohol,  till  the  spirit  has  all  passed  over.  If  the  strength  of 
the  wine  does  not  exceed  14  or  15  per  cent.,  the  alcohol  will  all 
have  passed  over  when  one-third  of  the  wine  has  been  distilled, 
as  will  be  shown  when  the  distillate  reaches  the  »  mark  on  the 
glass.  If  the  strength  exceeds  the  above  limit,  one-half  of  the 
wine  should  be  distilled.  If,  therefore,  on  testing  the  wine,  it  is 
found  to  contain  16  per  cent,  or  more  of  spirit,  and  only  one- 
third  was  distilled,  another  quantity  should  be  distilled,  and 
about  one-half  allowed  to  pass  over.  It  is  always  safer,  unless 
the  wine  is  very  weak,  to  distil  over  a  little  more  than  a  third. 
If  you  are  operating  on  a  wine  which  foams  to  such  an  extent 
that  a  portion  may  pass  through  the  tube  into  the  condenser, 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE.  189 

which  would  spoil  the  effect  of  the  operation,  this  may  be  pre- 
vented by  putting  into  the  boiler  with  the  wine  a  pinch  of  tannic 
acid.  In  operating  on  a  wine  which  contains  an  appreciable 
amount  of  acetic  acid — is  pricked — the  acid  ought  to  be  neutral- 
ized before  distillation,  as  it  is  volatile,  and  will  go  over  with  the 
alcohol  and  effect  the  result.  This  is  easily  done  by  adding  to 
the  wine  caustic  soda  in  drops,  till  it  completely  changes  color, 
red  wine  becoming  blue,  and  white  wine,  brown.  These  precau- 
tions, however,  are  generally  omitted  in  analyses  for  commercial 
purposes. 

When  the  distillation  is  complete,  add  to  the  distillate  sufficient 
pure  water  (distilled  water  if  possible),  to  make  up  the  exact 
volume  of  wine  measured.  To  do  this,  take  the  jar  containing 
the  distillate  and  hold  it  perpendicular,  with  the  upper  mark  on 
a  level  with  the  eye,  and  carefully  let  in  the  water,  drop  by  drop, 
by  means  of  the  pipette.  The  surface  of  the  liquid  will  be  seen 
to  curve  upward,  owing  to  the  attraction  of  the  glass,  and  the 
tube  should  be  filled  till  the  bottom  of  the  curve  touches  the 
mark;  and  the  same  precaution  should  be  taken  in  measuring  the 
wine  in  the  first  place. 

Now  we  have  a  mixture  corresponding  in  volume  with  the  wine, 
and  containing  all  the  alcohol  originally  contained  in  the  wine, 
and  a  certain  amount  of  water,  and  nothing  else. 

As  the  density  of  the  liquid  also  depends  upon  the  temperature, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  have  a  fixed  standard  at  which  the  test  is 
made,  and  this  is  60°  F.  in  this  country,  and  I  believe  in  all 
countries  except  France,  where  it  is  15°  C.,  or  59°  F.  As  the 
temperature  affects  the  volume,  it  is  better  to  adjust  it  by  cooling 
the  distillate  before  adding  the  last  few  drops  of  water,  which 
may  be  done  by  dipping  the  jar  into  cold  water,  or  if  it  is  too 
cold,  by  warming  it  with  the  hand. 

The  hydrometer  used  will  be  adjusted  to  a  temperature  of  60° 
F.,  or  15°  C.,  which  is  generally  shown  by  directions  accompany- 
ing the  still,  or  will  be  marked  on  the  instrument.  Let  the 
hydrometer  be  perfectly  clean  and  dry,  no  moisture  on  the  stem. 
Take  the  tip  of  the  stem  between  the  thumb  aiid  forefinger  and 


190 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 


lower  it  into  the  distillate  till  it  floats,  press  it  down  with  the 
finger  very  slightly,  and  let  it  come  to  equilibrium.  Place  the 
eye  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  and  see  where  it 
cuts  the  stem,  and  the  mark  shows  the  percentage  of  alcohol 
Fig.  44.  contained  in  the  wine.  Remem- 

ber that  the  mark  to  be  taken  is 
the  one  corresponding  with  the 
general  surface  of  the  liquid,  not 
the  top  of  the  meniscus,  or  curve. 
With  care,  a  result  can  be  obtained 
sufficiently  accurate  for  all  com- 
mercial purposes. 

A  table  is  usually  sold  with  these 
stills,  showing  the  corrections  for 
different  temperatures,  so  that  by 
its  use  the  reduction  of  the  tem- 
perature to  the  standard  may  be 
avoided. 

Fig.  44  represents  a  still  made 
in  New  York,  called  the  Monitor 
Still. 

Ethers  are  formed  by  alcohol  in  presence  of  the  different 
acids  contained  in  the  wine,  and  they  take  names  corresponding 
to  the  acids,  ocurring  as  compound  ethers,  the  most  common  one 
being  acetic  ether.  They  have  a  powerful  and  characteristic 
odor,  known  as  the  etherous  odor,  which  is  somewhat  disagree- 
able in  the  pure  ether,  but  becomes  agreeable  and  resembles  the 
aroma  of  fruit  and  flowers  when  greatly  diluted. 

Among  the  important  ethers  contained  in  wine  is  Oenanthic 
ether,  which  is  said  to  give  to  wine  its  characteristic  vinous  smell, 
which  distinguishes  it  from  any  other  fermented  liquor. 

Sugar  is  contained  in  many  wines,  especially  sweet  wines,  arid 
exercises  an  important  influence  upon  the  flavor. 

To  Estimate  Sugar. — The  quantity  of  sugar  contained  in  a 
sweet  wine  may  be  estimated  with  sufficient  accuracy,  for  com- 
mercial purposes,  in  the  following  manner.  A  certain  quantity 


Monitor    Still. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE.  191 

of  wine  is  measured  in  the  jar,  and  distilled  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  estimation  of  alcohol  (ivhich  see),  or  the  wine  may  be 
placed  in  a  shallow  dish  on  a  stove  or  over  a  lamp,  and  boiled 
slowly  till  the  volume  is  reduced  one-half,  when  the  alcohol  will 
be  all  evaporated;  then  the  original  volume  should  be  restored 
by  adding  water.  After  it  has  rested  for  a  day  or  so,  the  greater 
part  of  the  salts  will  crystallize  and  be  deposited,  when  the  sugar 
strength  can  be  ascertained  by  the  use  of  the  saccharometer,  in 
the  usual  way  (see  page  8).  One  degree,  however,  should  be 
deducted  from  the  hydrometer  reading. 

Mailllite.  or  the  essential  principle  of  manna,  is  produced  in 
wine  when  sugar  undergoes  viscous  fermentation.  Its  flavor  is 
similar  to  that  of  sugar,  and  its  composition  is  but  little  different 
from  that  of  the  same  substance. 

Mucilage. — The  grand  red  wines  of  the  Medoc,  and  of  some 
other  portions  of  the  Gironde,  and  also  the  grand  wines  of  Bur- 
gundy, says  Boireau,  preserve  in  aging  a  pronounced  fruity  taste, 
an  unctuosity,  a  velvety  mellowness,  which,  joined  with  their 
flavor  and  bouquet,  make  these  wines  in  good  years  the  delight 
of  the  gourmets.  This  velvety  mellowness  is  found  only  in  those 
seasons  when  the  grapes  ripen  well.  In  poor  years,  when  the 
grapes  do  not  become  completely  ripe,  the  wines  may  have  at 
times  more  or  less  distinctive  flavor  (seve),  and  sometimes  even  a 
little  bouquet,  but  they  are  dry,  and  the  mellowness  is  wanting. 

Many  ordinary  wines  possess  while  young,  if  they  have  been 
well  made,  and  are  produced  in  favorable  years,  a  marked  fruiiy 
flavor;  but  in  the  greater  part  of  the  wines  of  this  kind,  this 
mellowness  does  not  last,  and  disappears  gradually  with  age, 
while  in  the  grand  wines  of  good"  years,  the  unctuosity  is  more 
appreciable  after  the  defecation  of  their  lees  than  while  they  are 
new. 

The  substance  which  in  a  measure  produces  this  quality  is 
called  mucilage  by  Maumene  and  some  others.  Others,  again, 
have  given  it  different  names.  Maumene  says  that  it  seems  to 
be  a  sort  of  intermediary  substance  between  cellulose  and  dextrin, 


192  COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 

and  that  its  nature  is  not  yet  known,  but  that  it  is  a  near  neigh- 
bor of  sugar. 

Mr.  Boireau  believes  that  the  mellowness  is  produced  by  a  modi- 
fication of  grape  sugar,  because,  when  not  properly  cared  for, 
mellow  wines  undergo  an  insensible  fermentation,  especially  if 
they  are  in  their  first  and  second  years,  and  still  contain  fer- 
ments. Very  often  at  the  end  of  these  secondary  fermentations, 
the  unctuosity  has  disappeared,  and  the  wines  have  become  dry. 
It  seems,  accordingly,  that  the  substance  is  capable  of  under- 
going the  same  transformations  as  sugar  under  the  influence  of 
ferments  and  heat. 

Pectose  is  found  in  green  grapes  and  other  fruits,  and  by  the 
acids  is  changed  into  pectin,  which  is  the  gelatinizing  principle, 
is  soluble  in  water,  and  may  have  some  effect  on  the  mellowness 
of  wine.  Alcohol  precipitates  it  in  the  form  of  jelly. 

Fatty  Matters  have  been  found  in  wine  lees,  which  may  be 
extracted  from  the  seeds  by  long  contact  during  fermentation, 
for  it  is  known  that  the  seeds  yield  such  matters. 

Glycerin  is  mentioned  among  fatty  matters,  but  it  is  known 
to  be  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  sugar,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  its  influence  on  the  flavor  of  wine. 

The  Coloring  Matter  of  red  wine  has  received  the  name  of 
cenocyanine.  In  its  pure  state  it  is  blue,  but  is  changed  to  red 
by  acids.  The  yellow  and  brown  color  of  some  white  wines  is 
due  to  the  oxidation  of  some  of  the  matters  contained  in  them . 
The  change  of  color  in  red  wines  is  also  due  to  the  oxidation  of 
the  tannic  acid,  thereby  forming  an .  insoluble  compound,  tan- 
nomelanic  acid,  which  is  precipitated,  carrying  down  the  cenocy- 
anine, and  the  wine  gradually  becomes  tawny. 

Aldehydes  are  produced  first  in  the  transformation  of  alcohol 
into  an  acid  by  oxidation,  acet-aldehyde  occurring  between 
alcohol  and  acetic  acid,  as  mentioned  in  Acetic  Fermentation. 
When  a  weak  wine  is  exposed  to  the  air  it  is  gradually  converted 
into  vinegar,  or  acetic  acid.  If  free  access  of  air  is  permitted,  it 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE.  193 

may  be  converted  at  once  into  acetic  acid,  but  if  the  access  of 
the  air  is  very  limited,  or  if  the  wine  is  rich  and  strong,  oxida- 
tion stops  at  the  first  stage,  and  aldehyde  is  formed.  It  is  a 
colorless  liquid  of  a  very  suffocating  smell,  having  an  etherous 
odor,  and  is  supposed  to  have  an  important  influence  on  the 
flavor  and  bouquet  of  various  wines.  The  strong  wines  of  south- 
ern countries  which  are  kept  in  casks  in  ullage,  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  develop  a  certain  amount  of 
aldehyde  in  time,  and  it  is  supposed  that  sherry  owes  some  of  its 
qualities  to  this  substance. 

Acids. — We  can  only  allude  briefly  to  the  acids  which  have 
been  recognized  in  wines.  The  principal  one  is  tarlaric  acid, 
found  in  considerable  quantities  in  grapes,  and  is  contained  in 
the  argols,  or  crude  cream  of  tartar,  bitartrate  of  potash,  which  is 
deposited  on  the  inner  walls  of  the  casks  in  which  the  wine  is 
kept.  This  substance  principally  gives  the  acid  taste  to  wine. 

Malic  Acid,  or  the  acid  of  apples,  is  found;  and  of  citric  add, 
or  the  acid  of  lemons,  traces  have  been  recognized;  also  pectic 
acid,  derived  from  the  pectose. 

Tannic  Acid  is  a  very  important  ingredient  in  wine,  and  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  this  work.  (See  Fining,  Tannin.) 

Carbonic  Acid. — It  has  been  shown  in  the  chapter  on  Fer- 
mentation that  carbon  dioxide  is  the  gas  produced  by  fermenta- 
tion. This  gas,  CO,,  was  known  to  the  old  chemists  as  carbonic 
acid,  or  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the  latter  terms  are  "frequently 
used  in  this  work  in  the  sense  of  carbon  dioxide,  in  accordance 
with  common  usage.  But  modern  chemistry  teaches  us  that 
carbon  dioxide,  OCX,  is  not  an  acid  at  all,  but  in  connection  with 
water  it  takes  up  a  molecule  of  the  latter,  and  becomes  EL  CO,, 
carbonic  acid  proper.  The  gas,  however,  as  well  as  the  acid, 
exists  in  all  wines,  and  to  the  former,  sparkling  wines  owe  their 
effervescence.  Its  presence  is  important,  exercising  a  preservative 
effect  by  preventing  their  oxidation,  and  also  by  keeping  in  dis- 
solution substances  which  would  otherwise  cloud  the  wine. 
When  the  wine  is  first  fermented  it  is  saturated  with  carbon 


194  COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 

dioxide,  and  while  it  remains  so,  oxygen  will  not  be  absorbed, 
and  hence  its  preservative  effect.  Mr.  Maumene  even  recom- 
mends resort  to  artificial  means  to  restore  it,  or  to  re-saturate  the 
wine  in  case  of  its  loss.  If,  however,  the  precautions  heretofore 
indicated  for  keeping  table  wines  are  observed,  the  wine  will  be 
well  preserved. 

Acetic  Acid  is  the  result  of  oxidation,  or  acetic  fermentation 
(which  see),  and  lactic  acid  is  derived  from  lactic  fermentation, 
but  is  regarded  as  accidental  in  wine,  probably  not  existing  in 
the  must,  though  it  is  found  in  some  wines  made  from  grapes 
which  have  been  bruised  and  broken  a  long  time  before  using. 

Butyric  Acid  is  the  product  of  butyric  fermentation. 

Yaleric  Acid  is  supposed  to  exist  in  wine  from  the  distinctive 
odor  which  is  smelt  in  it  under  certain  conditions. 

Succinic  Acid  has  been  referred  to  as  one  of  the  products  of 
alcoholic  fermentation. 

The  Total  Acids  in  wine  vary  a  good  deal,  but  four  or  five  per 
mille  is  a  fair  average. 

Space  will  not  permit  of  more  details  on  the  various  substances 
contained  in  wine,  but  those  who  desire  further  information  are 
referred  to  the  work  of  Maumene  in  French,  and  that  of  Thudi- 
churn  and  Dupre  in  English. 

The  Banquet  proper  of  wines  is  a  perfume  containing  differ- 
ent odors,  like  that  of  a  bouquet  of  flowers.  It  is  very  complex 
also  in  its  origin,  and  the  matters  contained  in  the  wine  which 
give  rise  to  it  are  but  little  known.  It  is  variable,  being  differ- 
ent in  different  wines,  and  all  the  odorous  matters  doubtless  con- 
tribute to  its  existence,  such*  as  oenanthic,  and  other  ethers,  the 
different  alcohols,  aldehydes,  and  perhaps  even  certain  essential 
oils.  The  varieties  of  grapes,  the  season,  and  the  soil,  also  have 
their  effect,  as  well  as  the  method  of  vinification.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  the  bouquet  is  principally  due  to  the  ethers. 

Artificial  Bouquet. — In  this  connection,  the  experiments  of 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE.  195 

Mr.  Maumene  will  be  found  interesting.  He  prepared  one  litre 
of  a  liquid  similar,  to  wine,  but  without  a  sensible  odor,  by  add- 
ing distilled  water  to  the  distillate  from  a  red  wine  of  Bordeaux. 

One  drop  of  aldehyde  produced  no  appreciable  odor. 

Six  drops  of  acetic  ether  produced  no  sensible  effect. 

Nor  did  crystallized  acetic  acid  change  the  result. 

He  then  added  5  grs.  5  of  cream  of  tartar,  0  gr.  18  of  succinic 
acid,  and  20  grs.  of  glycerin,  without  producing  any  odor  in  the 
liquid. 

On  adding  certain  ethers  a  remarkable  change  was  produced. 

By  adding  two  small  drops  of  cenanthic  ether  (obtained  by 
distilling  fresh  wine  lees),  the  liquid  instantly  gave  an  odor  of 
wine. 

Then  he  added,  drop  by  drop,  one  cubic  centimetre  (1000th 
part  by  measure)  of  essence  of  pears,  that  is,  the  following 
mixture: 

1  volume  of  valero-amylic  ether. 
6  volumes  of  alcohol  of  36  per  cent. 

The  first  drops  developed  a  bouquet  which  belongs  to  certain 
wines;  but  by  adding  the  whole  amount  mentioned,  a  pear  odor 
was  developed,  by  which  the  liquid  could  be  easily  distinguished 
from  wine.  So  he  prepared  another  litre  of  the  liquid  contain- 
ing the  same  substances,  and  added  only  two  or  three  drops  of 
essence  of  pears.  He  then  added  two  drops  of  ordinary  butyric 
ether,  and  the  bouquet  resembled  in  a  remarkable  degree  that  of 
a  good  Bouzy  wine,  arid  several  persons  took  it  for  a  decolored 
wine.  By  varying  the  experiment,  the  bouquet  of  wines  can  be 
imitated  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

For  those  who  are  curious  in  such  matters,  I  translate  the 
following  from  Boireau: 

Artificial  bouquets  are  produced  by  aromatic  substances,  or 
essential  oils,  whose  aroma  is  extracted  or  dissolved  out  by  the 
help  of  alcohol.  The  aromatic  principle  may  be  extracted  either 
by  a  simple  alcoholic  tincture,  by  digestion  or  distillation,  by 
dissolving  the  oils  themselves,  etc.,  and  the  process  varies  with 
the  substance  used. 


196  COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 

The  aromatic  substances  most  frequently  employed  to  pro- 
duce artificial  bouquets  in  non-fortified  wines,  commencing  with 
those  which  form  the  base  and  whose  aromas  are  more  dominant, 
are:  iris,  strawberry,  gillyflower,  the  flower  of  the  vine,  mign- 
onette, nutmeg,  bitter  almond,  fruit  pits,  sassafras,  etc.  The 
latter  are  rarely  employed  alone,  and  play  a  secondary  part  by 
mixing  with  the  two  first,  iris  and  strawberry,  whose  aromas  are 
quite  distinctive. 

Iris. — There  are  two  varieties  of  this.  The  roots  only  are 
employed;  they  are  white,  of  an  average  diameter  of  0  m.  02 
(I  in.),  and  of  a  very  irregular  form.  They  are  sold  in  pieces 
about  Om.  05  (2  in.)  long,  with  the  rootlets  removed.  They  are 
largely  employed  in  perfumery. 

The  root  of  the  so-called  Florence  iris,  which  grows  in  Italy 
and  the  south  of  France,  has  a  pronounced  violet  odor.  Another 
variety,  which  grows  in  the  north  of  France  and  in  Germany,  is 
sold  under  the  name  of  German  iris.  An  experienced  person  can 
distinguish  the  two. 

The  perfume  of  the  iris  is  with  difficulty  and  incompletely 
extracted  by  distillation;  it  is  obtained  by  infusing  the  roots  in 
alcohol,  after  first  reducing  them  to  a  powder  by  means  of  a 
grater.  The  operation  is  long,  but  indispensable.  The  powder 
occurs  in  commerce,  but  in  that  form  the  roots  lose  their  aroma, 
and  it  is  moreover  liable  to  be  adulterated. 

The  tincture  is  prepared  in  the  following  proportions :  old 
spirit  of  wine  of  85  per  cent.,  10  litres  (2£  gallons);  Florence 
iris,  1  kilogramme  (21,  lb.),  reduced  to  powder. 

Bung  or  cork  the  vessel  containing  it,  stir  it  about  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  then  put  it  in  a  place  of  at  least  68 J  F.,  but  which 
does  not  go  beyond  95C.  Shake  it  occasionally  during  two  weeks, 
and  then  press  and  filter  it. 

The  tincture  has  a  pronounced  violet  odor,  and  a  harsh,  bitter 
after-taste. 

It  may  be  employed  alone,  in  a  very  small  dose,  rarely  exceed- 
ing 5  centilitres  per  hectolitre  (131  fluidrams  to  26 £  gallons). 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE^~yl  I  197 


Oftener,  however,  a  few  drops  of  the  essential 
etc.,  are  mixed  with  it. 

Strawberry.  —  The  preparation  of  an  alcoholic  infusion  of 
strawberries  is  very  simple.  Take  fully  ripe  berries,  pick  them 
over  and  hull  them,  and  put  them  in  a  keg  with  a  large  bung. 
Ten  kilogrammes  of  fruit  to  12  litres  of  old  spirits  of  wine  of  85 
per  cent.  (22  Ibs.  to  3i  gals.)  are  used.  After  macerating  for 
twenty-four  hours,  the  liquor  is  drawn  off  and  filtered.  It  is  a 
rose-colored  liquor  of  a  very  pleasant  aroma.  Then  the  fruit  is 
crushed,  and  brandy  of  50  per  cent,  is  added,  and  the  whole  is 
allowed  to  macerate  for  a  month,  and  then  the  marc  is  pressed. 
The  second  tincture  has  an  odor  and  flavor  inferior  to  the  first, 
and  has  more  color.  It  is  filtered,  or  what  is  better,  distilled  in 
a  water  bath.  In  the  latter  way  spirit  of  strawberry  is  obtained. 
It  is  preferable  to  employ  the  liquor  of  the  first  infusion.  This 
aroma  is  generally  used  alone,  and  is  much  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  sparkling  wines.  Sometimes  a  small  quantity  of 
other  aromatic  substances  are  added,  allowing  the  strawberry  to 
predominate.  It  is  the  best  modifier  of  the  aroma  of  young 
wines. 

The  dose  varies  according  to  the  degree  of  the  aroma,  from  2 
to  10  centilitres  per  hectolitre  ($•  to  ;]  of  a  gill,  or  5.4  to  27  fluid- 
rams  to  26.4  gals.  ) 

Gillyflower,  or  Stoekgilly.—  The  essential  oil  of  this  flower 
may  be  extracted  by  pressure,  by  maceration,  or  by  distillation, 
and  is  found  in  commerce.  To  make  the  bouquet,  the  oil  is 
used,  or  the  concentrated  essence,  which  is  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  the  bruised  flowers  with  alcohol  of  85  per  cent., 
in  the  proportion  of  300  grammes  of  the  flowers  to  5  litres  of 
alcohol  (10]  oz.  to  55  quarts).  In  the  absence  of  an  alembic, 
the  aroma  may  be  extracted  by  infusion,  as  in  the  case  of  iris,  by 
macerating  100  grammes  of  the  bruised  flowers  to  1  litre  of 
alcohol  of  85  per  cent.  (3-1  oz.  to  a  quart)  for  eight  days,  and 
filtering.  Gillyflower  is  rarely  used  alone;  but  by  adding  a  very 
small  quantity  of  it  to  iris,  a  good  effect  is  produced,  and  the 
perfume  becomes  more  intimately  mixed  with  the  wine,  for  the 


198  COMPOSITION  OF  WINE. 

oil  of  gillyflower  is  heavier  than  water;  but  this  aroina  should 
never  predominate,  and  is  best  for  old  wines  without  bouquet. 

Vine  Flowers  are  gathered  and  the  petals  infused  in  alcohol 
of  85  per  cent., in  the  proportion  of  100  grammes  of  flowers  to  5 
litres  of  alcohol  (3^  oz.  to  5£  quarts).  After  macerating  for  eight 
days,  it  is  distilled  in  a  water  bath.  This  aroma,  which  is  very 
volatile,  is  used  in  the  dose  of  5  centilitres  to  a  hectolitre  (13.5 
fluidrams  to  26.4  gals.) 

Mignonette. — The  perfume  of  the  mignonette,  like  that  of 
many  other  flowers,  is  obtained  by  picking  the  flowers  from  their 
stems,  bruising  them,  and  placing  them  upon  layers  of  cotton  or 
pieces  of  linen  impregnated  with  fresh  oil,  or  other  sweet  fats;  oil 
of  ben  is  preferred.  The  flowers  are  renewed  every  four  hours, 
till  the  cotton  or  the  cloth  is  charged  with  perfume.  The  oil  or 
fat  is  removed  by  pressure  or  otherwise,  and  the  essential  oil  is 
dissolved  out  with  alcohol  of  85  per  cent.,  which  is  afterwards 
separated  from  the  fixed  oil,  and  filtered.  The  extract  of  mign- 
onette so  obtained  is  employed  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  5  cen- 
tilitres to  a  hectolitre  (2.7  to  13.5  fluidrams  to  26.4  gals.)  but 
oftener  it  is  mixed  with  other  perfumes. 

Nutmeg  is  employed  in  the  form  of  spirit  distilled  from  the 
nuts  over  the  fire,  500  grammes  of  nuts  to  10  litres  of  alcohol 
(1  Ib.  to  102  quarts),  or  in  the  form  of  a  tincture  made  with  the 
same  proportions  of  nuts  and  alcohol,  or  a  small  quantity  of  the 
essential  oil  is  mixed  with  other  aromatic  substances.  This  pre- 
paration, particularly  the  tincture  or  the  distilled  spirit,  has  a 
good  effect.  Being  heavier  than  water,  it  assists  the  mixture. 

Bitter  Almonds  and  Fruit  Pits.— Their  oil  is  found  in  com- 
merce, and  its  aroma  is  due  to  the  hydrocyanic  (prussic)  acid 
contained  in  it,  which  is  poisonous,  and  therefore  the  oil  should 
be  employed  in  the  smallest  doses. 

Sassafras. — The  essential  oil  is  extracted  from  the  wood  and 
bark  by  distillation,  and  can  be  purchased  in  the  market.  It  is 
heavier  than  wine,  and  fixes  the  lighter  perfumes.  It  is  used 
only  secondarily,  and  in  very  small  quantities. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WINE.  199 

Other  Aromas  have  been  tried,  but  they  can  only  be  used  as 
auxiliary  to  the  three  first  named,  iris,  gillyflower,  and  strawberry, 
because  their  odors  dift'er  essentially  from  the  natural  bouquet  of 
mellow  wines. 

Effects. — These  preparations  give  wines  a  bouquet  or  aroma 
which  partakes  of  the  substances  employed,  but  they  do  not  give 
the  distinctive  flavor  (s6ve)  which  characterizes  fine  wines,  and 
the  result  only  flatters  the  sense  of  smell.  These  perfumes  are 
very  volatile,  and  it  does  not  require  a  very  delicate  or  a  much 
experienced  palate  to  distinguish  them  from  the  natural  bouquet 
of  wine,  and  persons  of  delicate  sensibilities  are  disturbed  by 
them,  if  too  pronounced. 

When  a  wine  has  been  artificially  perfumed,  it  still  preserves 
its  taste  and  earthy  flavor;  it  has  simply  changed  its  odor.  Taste 
it  without  smelling,  and  its  distinctive  flavor  will  be  recognized. 
Mr.  Boireau  says  that,  notwithstanding  the  contrary  announce- 
ments of  interested  manufacturers,  they  are  not  preserved  like 
the  natural  bouquets  and  flavors,  but,  little  by  little,  they  become 
enfeebled,  and  are  volatilized  with  time. 

He  says  that  the  trade  is  inundated  with  the  announcements 
of  pretended  cenologists,  chemists,  etc.,  manufacturers  of  bou- 
quets decorated  with  such  pompous  names  as  Medoc  Flavoring 
(Seve  du  Medoc),  Bouquet  of  Bordeaux,  of  Pomard,  Bordeaux 
Extract,  etc.,  and  all  these  humbugs  are  advertised  as  giving  the 
most  ordinary  wines  the  true  Medoc  flavor,  etc.,  which,  happily 
for  the  producers  of  Medoc,  cannot  be  done. 

It  is  better,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  Gutting  Wines,  to 
improve  wines  by  mixing  them  with  those  having  expansible 
flavors  and  odors,  rather  than  use  these  artificial  bouquets. 


200  MISCELLANEOUS. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

GENERAL    CHAPTER MISCELLANEOUS . 

The  Proportion  of  Juice  to  Marc,  as  stated  in  Thudichum 
and  Dupre's  work,  has  been  found  in  various  grapes  as  follows: 

White  Chasselas,  stems  removed,  gave  by  strong  pressure,  97 
per  cent,  of  juice;  marc  of  skins  and  seeds,  3  per  cent. 

Black  Pinot  grapes,  stems  removed,  gave  94.8  per  cent,  of 
juice,  and  5.2  per  cent,  of  marc. 

Black  Pinot,  pressed  with  the  stems,  gave  91. 8  per  cent,  of  juice, 
and  8.2  per  cent,  of  marc,  including  stems. 

Black  Pinot,  fermented  with  the  stems  and  then  pressed, 
gave  69.6  per  cent,  of  wine,  and  30.4  per  cent,  of  marc. 

In  the  latter  case  much  wine  is  absorbed  by  the  stems,  which 
cannot  be  removed  by  pressure. 

In  the  first  three  cases  the  pressure  must  have  been  such  as  to 
reduce  the  marc  to  near  dryness  to  obtain  so  high  a  percentage 
of  juice. 

In  the  report  of  the  work  done  in  the  Viticultural  Laboratory 
of  the  University,  referred  to  in  the  preface,  the  following  figures 
are  found,  and  are  extracted  from  Table  No.  1  of  the  report. 
Omitting  the  two  extremes — Fehei  Szagos,  203.2,  and  Lenoir, 
118 — we  obtain  the  average  of  157  gallons  of  grape  juice  per  ton 
of  2000  Ibs.  in  twelve  white  wines,  and  174.8  gallons  per  ton  in 
twelve  red  wines;  the  word  "red"  being  used  in  the  table  to 
designate  the  product  obtained  by  fermenting  white  grapes  with 
the  skins  and  seeds,  as  well  as  to  designate  "red  wine"  proper. 

The  report  says:  "The  red  wines,  of  course,  produce  very 
much  less  pomace,  which  consists  largely  of  skins  and  seeds  only. 
The  white  pomace  has  much  more  of  the  pulp  of  the  grape,  and  con- 
sequently a  much  larger  amount  of  water.  During  the  fermentation 
the  internal  structure  of  the  grape  is  destroyed,  the  sugar  is  fer- 
mented out,  and  only  the  fibrous  structure  remains;  even  this  is  to  a 
great  extent  broken  up,  and  runs  out  with  the  wine  when  pressed ," 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


201 


NAME. 

Color  of  Wine. 

11 

ii 

»   2     : 
I,0 

iv 

Pomace,  per  cent. 

§ 

I 

Air-dried  Pomace, 
per  cent. 

1 

1 

I 

0 

Gallons  of  Must  per 
ton  of  Grapes— 
2000  Ibs. 

Mission,  just  ripe. 
"      fully  " 

(  (                   C(             t  « 

n 

Red 

White 
Red 
White 

71.75 
106.50 
101.00 

85.80 

13.50 
18.30 
11.63 
24.10 

3.05 
3.75 
3.96 
3.07 

8.71 

6.38 
9.20 

8.98 
6.84 

177.8 
172.6 
177.8 
159.4 

(  ( 

Red 

73.92 

12.20 

2.91 

5.26 

6.30 

170.5 

Zinfandel 

White 

84.00 

27.30 

5.75 

6.20 

147.6 

<  < 

Red 

126.00 

13.40 

5.55 

11.00 

174.6 

(.- 

White 

87.78 

29.07 

451 

7.31 

6.32 

144.0 

c  ( 

Red 

84.26 

10.96 

4.02 

494 

7.30 

173.4 

Malvoisie 

White 

116.00 

18.10 

2.58 

9.90 

170.6 

ii 

Red 

151.00 

10.92 

2.65 

14.30 

189.4 

Charbono       

White 

97.00 

30.92 

6  18 

7.00 

144.2 

Burerer 

White 

74.00 

22 

.97 

6.40 

172.8 

« 

"Red" 

95.00 

12.10 

7.36 

8.25 

173.6 

Chasselas 

White 

103,84 

31.35 

9,  96 

5.93 

7.47 

143.8 

c  < 

"Red" 

70.40 

13.75 

2  92 

3.74 

5.97 

169.6 

Golden  Chasselas. 
Prolific 

"Red" 
White 

139.70 
95.04 

12.28 
23.15 

4.56 
3.70 

3.15 

7  76 

12.90 
7.54 

184.6 
158.6 

it 

"Red" 

86.24 

11.73 

3.57 

4  24 

7-30 

169.2 

Black  Prince  
1  1           (  ( 

Feher  Szagos  
(  (           (  ( 

Mataro           

White 
Red 
White 
Red 

White 

108.24 
103.40 
92.40 
77.99 
131.67 

25.60 
15.74 
25.95 
9.01 
21.40 

5.18 
4.46 
2.14 

2.28 
6.69 

9.01 
5.21 
4.89 
2.55 
6.26 

8.13 
8.54 
7.47 
7.93 
10.46 

150.2 
165.2 
161.8 
203.2 
158.9 

i  ( 

Red 

90.20 

12.19 

5.60 

5.02 

7.76 

172.0 

Lenoir    . 

Red 

33.00 

17.30 

600 

8.50 

1.96 

118.7 

This  table  contradicts  the  opinion  held  by  some  wine  makers, 
that  the  Mission  grape  yields  a  larger  percentage  of  stems  than 
other  varieties .  The  five  lots  of  Mission  grapes  analyzed  give 
an  average  of  nearly  3.35  per  cent,  of  stems,  which  is  less  than 
the  yield  of  every  other  variety  mentioned,  except  Malvoisie, 
Chasselas,  and  Feher  Szagos. 

The  Proportion  of  Wine  to  Grapes. — It  is  generally  said  that 
it  takes  about  12  Ibs.  of  grapes  to  produce  a  gallon  of  wine; 
some  give  the  number   of  pounds  as  low  as  10;  the  product, 
14 


202  MISCELLANEOUS. 

however,  is  must,  or  new  wine,  for  nothing  is  taken  into  consid- 
eration for  loss  by  evaporation,  etc.,  while  aging.  Some  wine 
dealers  here  consider  that  it  takes  about  17  Ibs.  of  grapes  to  pro- 
duce a  gallon  of  wine  ready  for  consumption. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  St.  Helena  Vinicultural  Club,  Napa  Valley, 
in  this  State,  the  following  facts  were  stated,  as  reported  in  the 
newspapers.  Mr.  Krug  said  that  he  had  always  thought  that  14 
Ibs.  of  grapes  would  give  a  gallon  of  good  wine  at  the  time  of  the 
second  racking  in  March ,  April,  or  May.  Mr.  Scheffler  said  he 
had  made  last  year  135.6  gallons  of  wine  and  8  gallons  of  brandy 
to  the  ton  of  grapes.  Counting  each  gallon  of  brandy  as  equal 
to  5  of  wine,  it  was  equal  to  about  176  gallons  of  wine.  That 
was  about  the  average  of  Riesling,  Chasselas,  Zinfandel,  Mal- 
voisie,  etc.  The  general  average  was  136  gallons  of  wine  and  8 
of  brandy,  or  125  gallons  of  good  wine  and  10  of  brandy.  Mr. 
Heyman  said  he  was  glad  to  get  145  gallons  of  clear,  marketable 
wine  on  the  average.  Mr.  Pellet  said  that  the  very  best  grapes 
would  make  150  gallons  of  wine  at  the  first  racking,  and  this  is 
probably  a  fair  average. 

Wooden  and  Metal  Utensils. — In  European  countries,  and 
in  all  properly  ordered  wine  cellars,  wooden  utensils  are  used 
wherever  practicable;  and  it  ought  to  be  impressed  upon  the 
mind  of  every  one  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  handling  of 
the  liquid,  that  metal  should  never  come  in  contact  with  wine,  if 
it  can  be  avoided,  except  it  be  a  precious  metal  like  silver.  The 
reason  is  that  wine,  on  account  of  the  acids  contained  in  it,  has 
a  powerful  effect  upon  lead,  copper,  zinc,  iron,  etc.  Whenever 
such  a  metal  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  air,  and  of  an 
acid  liquor,  the  metal  is  readily  oxidized,  and  the  oxide  combines 
with  the  acid  to  form  a  salt.  Therefore,  Mr.  Maumene  says  that 
it  is  dangerous  to  keep  wine  for  a  few  hours  in  vessels  of  copper 
or  lead,  on  account  of  the  poisonous  effects  of  their  compounds. 
It  is  bad  even  to  leave  it  in  iron,  zinc,  or  tin.  Among  the  acids 
contained  in  wine,  that  which  is  the  most  capable  of  causing 
oxidation  of  the  metals  is  the  tartaric  acid  and  the  crude  tartar. 
So  the  principal  salts  formed  by  the  wine  in  metallic  vessels  are 
the  bi-tartrates  of  potash  and  the  oxide  of  the  metal.  Iron  wire 


MISCELLANEOUS.  »203 

wet  with  wine,  in  a  few  days  becomes  covered  with  a  very  dark, 
brown  pellicle,  the  wine  is  reduced  to  a  solution  of  tartrate  of 
iron  and  potash,  which  is  of  that  color.  A  piece  of  iron  in  the 
wine  produces  the  same  result.  This  salt,  however,"is  not  poison- 
ous. But  if  the  acid  acts  energetically  on  the  iron,  the  water 
will  be  deprived  of  its  oxygen,  and  the  hydrogen  thereby  set  free 
may  seriously  affect  the  wine,  by  combining  with  foreign  bodies 
found  in  it,  producing  a  detestable  flavor  and  odor.  A  cask  of 
wine  may  be  completely  ruined  by  a  nail. 

The  salts  of  iron,  therefore,  are  not  to  be  feared  on  account 
of  any  deleterious  effect  upon  the  system,  but  rather  on  account 
of  the  ill  effect  which  they  may  have  upon  the  color,  the  flavor, 
and  odor  of  the  wine.  On  the  other  hand,  the  salts  of  copper 
and  lead  are  highly  poisonous,  and  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Zinc  and  galvanized  iron  are  also  affected  by  wine,  to  the 
extent  that  when  left  in  vessels  made  of  either,  it  will  cause 
serious  indisposition  to  those  who  drink  it. 

Tin  is  also  dissolved  by  wine,  forming  stannic  oxide  and  stan- 
nic acid,  which  combine  with  the  coloring  matter  and  render  it 
insoluble,  making  the  wine  cloudy  at  first,  and  finally  rendering 
it  nearly  colorless.  By  long  contact  with  tin  the  wine  develops 
a  fetid  odor.  Every  wine  maker  knows  how  soon  his  tin  vessels 
used  about  wine  wear  out,  and  the  reason  is  apparent. 

Cleanliness. — Whether  wood  or  metal  utensils  are  used,  it  is 
one  of  the  essentials  in  making  good,  wholesome  wine,  that  they 
should'  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  neat.  Steminers,  crushers, 
presses,  buckets,  funnels,  and  in  fact  everything  that  comes  in 
contact  with  the  liquid  should  be  scrubbed  and  rinsed  often 
enough  to  prevent  their  becoming  sour,  or  contracting  any 
disagreeable  flavor  or  odor.  If  metal  vessels  must  be  used,  by 
all  means  do  not  allow  wine  to  stand  in  them.  Bun  water 
through  the  hose  and  the  pumps  after  using,  and  also  before 
using  again.  For  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  many  of  the  bad  odors 
and  flavors  met  with  in  wines  made  by  inexperienced  persons 
are  often  due  to  want  of  care  in  these  matters.  The  necessary 
care  to  be  bestowed  upon  the  casks  has  already  been  mentioned 
iix  the  proper  place. 


204 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Different  Cellar  Utensils  which  will  be  found  convenient  are 
represented  in  the  following  figures : 

Fig.  45.  Fig.  46.  Fig.  47. 


Tin  Pitchers.  Wooden  Pitcher. 

Figures  45  and  46  are  tin  pitchers,  and  47  is  of  wood. 
Fig.  48.  Fig.  f.P. 


Wooden  Funnel.  Adjustable   Hoop. 

Figure  48  shows  wooden  vessels  not  necessary  to  describe. 

Figure  49  is  a  wooden  funnel  for  casks.  Figure  50  is  an 
adjustable  hoop,  useful  in  case  of  leakage  in  a  cask  caused  by 
the  breaking  of  hoops.  It  can  be  put  around  a  cask  and  tight- 
ened with  the  screw  till  a  new  hoop  is  put  in  place.  Where, 
however,  casks  are  well  hooped  with  iron,  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
needed. 

Figure  51  are  baskets  for  carrying  bottles. 

Every  well  ordered  cellar  should  be  provided  with  graduated 
measures  (tigs.  52  and  53)  in  which  to  measure  the  respective 
proportions  to  be  taken  of  each  kind  of  wine  for  cutting.  They 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


205 


52. 


can  be  had  of  any  desired  capacity,  and  graduated  decimally,  or 
otherwise,  as  needed. 

F'KJ.  51.  Figure  54,  instruments 

of  tin  for  drawing  from  the 
bungs  of  casks  in  tasting. 
In  the  sherry  districts, 

Bottle  Baskets.  where  the  casks  are  not 

a  narr0w  cup  attached  to  a  stick  is  used  to 
dip  out  the  wine  through  the  bung.     The  practice  of 
i:  'ing  a  piece  of  hose  for  this  purpose,  by  letting  one 
Fig,  53.         end  into  the  cask  and  sucking  on  the 
other  with  the  mouth   till   the  wine 
runs,  as  it  is  done  in  too  many  cellars 
iii  California,  is  not  to  be  commended 
LO  the  fastidious. 

A  pump  in  the  form  of  figure  55  is 
sometimes  useful  for  drawing  wine 
fjom  casks  in  certain  positions. 

Figure  56   represents   wire   imple- 
ments for  removing  corks  which  have 
been  pushed  inside  a  bottle. 
Fig.  55.  Fig.  56. 


Graduated  Measures. 


Fig.  54. 


For  Removing  Corks. 


Fig.  57. 


Tin  Tasters. 


Hand  Pump. 


Bucket 


206  MISCELLANEOUS. 

USEFUL    RULES. 

To  Ascertain  the  Weight  of  a  Given  Number  of  Gallons  of 
a  Liquid,  multiply  8.33  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid,  and 
the  product  by  the  number  of  gallons.  For  instance,  suppose 
we  have  1000  gallons  of  a  must  which  shows  22  per  cent,  sugar. 
From  Table  I  we  obtain  the  corresponding  specific  gravity, 
1.0923  (the  figure  1  is  omitted  except  at  the  top  of  the  column), 
which  shows  how  much  heavier  it  is  than  water,  water  being  1 . 
Now,  one  gallon  of  water  at  60°  F.  weighs  8.33  Ibs.,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  must  should  be  about  the  same.  (See  Must — 
Testing  for  Sugar.}  8.33  multiplied  by  1.0923  =  nearly  9.1, 
which  is  the  weight  in  pounds  of  one  gallon  of  the  must. 
One  thousand  gallons  would  weigh  nearly  9,100  Ibs.  If  Beau- 
me's  hydrometer  is  used,  ascertain  from  Table  II  the  specific 
gravity  corresponding  to  the  mark  on  the  stem.  This  rule  applies 
to  all  liquids  whose  specific  gravity  is  known — syrup,  wine, 
brandy,  alcohol,  etc. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  wine  of  12  per  cent,  is  .9843,  and  by 
our  rule,  one  gallon  weighs  about  8.2  Ibs.  a  little  less  than  a 
gallon  of  water. 

Rule  for  Reducing  Must  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  percentage 
of  sugar:  Multiply  the  number  of  gallons  of  the  must  by  its 
specific  gravity,  and  the  product  by  the  difference  between  the 
given  per  cent,  and  the  required  per  cent.,  and  divide  by  the 
required  per  cent. 

Suppose  that  we  have  1000  gallons  of  a  must  of  27  per  cent., 
how  many  gallons  of  water  are  required  to  reduce  it  to  23  per 
cent? 

The  specific  gravity,  by  Table  I,  is  1.1154,  and  this  multiplied 
by  1000  =  1115.4,  which  multiplied  by  4,  the  difference  between 
27  and  23  =  4461.6,  which  divided  by  23  gives  194  gallons,  in 
round  numbers. 

Rule  for  Sugaring  Must.— If  crystallized  sugar  is  used,  dis- 
solve it  and  make  a  strong  syrup,  or  sugar  water,  and  the  propo- 
sition is:  Given  a  must  of  a  certain  sugar  per  cent.,  and  a  syrup 
of  a  given  per  cent.,  how  much  of  the  syrup  for  each  gallon  of 


MISCELLANEOUS.  207 

must  is  required  to  produce  a  must  of  any   required  strength, 
between  the  two  ? 

First — Multiply  the  required  per  cent,  by  the  corresponding 
specific  gravity. 

Second — Multiply  the  per  cent,  of  the  must  by  its  specific 
gravity. 

Third — Multiply  the  per  cent,  of  the  syrup  by  its  specific 
gravity. 

Divide  the  difference  between  the  first  and  second  products  by 
the  difference  between  the  first  and  third,  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  fraction  of  a  gallon  required. 

Suppose  that  we  have  a  must  of  only  10  per  cent,  of  sugar, 
and  a  syrup  of  60  per  cent. ;  how  much  of  the  second  should  be 
added  to  one  gallon  of  the  first  to  produce  a  must  of  23  per 
cent.? 

23  x   1.0969  —  10  x  1.0401 

=.284  of  a  gallon. 


60   x    1.2899  —  23   x   1.0969 

Therefore,  for  every  gallon  of  the  must,  we  add  0.284  gallons 
of  the  syrup. 

•    The  same  rule  will  apply  to  the  mixing  of  a  strong  and  a  weak 
must. 

Rules  for  Fortifying  and  Reducing  Wines  and  Weak 
Liquors. — In  mixing  strong  spirits,  it  is  necessary  to  make  an 
allowance  for  contraction,  and  tables  are  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  in  mixing  wines  and  weak  spirits,  it  may  be  disre- 
garded, and  the  following  rules  will  be  found  sufficient. 

To  Reduce  with  Water. — Having  a  wine  or  a  weak  Spirit  of  a 
certain  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  how  much  water  is  required  for 
each  gallon  to  reduce  it  to  any  lower  per  cent.? 

Divide  the  difference  between  the  given  per  cent,  and  the 
required  per  cent.,  by  the  required  per  cent. 

Suppose  a  wine  or  other  alcoholic  solution  of  15  per  cent,  by 


208  M  ISC  EL  LAN  EG  US . 

volume,  how  much  water  is  required  for  each  gallon  to  produce 
one  of  10  per  cent.? 

15  —  10 


10 

Therefore,  add  one-half  gallon  of  water  for  each  gallon  of  the 
wine  or  weak  spirit. 

To  Reduce  with  Weaker  Wine,  or  to  Fortify  with  Stronger 
Wine  or  Alcohol.  —  Having  two  wines  or  other  weak  liquors 
whose  percentages  of  alcohol  are  known,  how  much  of  the 
second  is  required  for  every  gallon  of  the  first,  to  produce  a  wine 
of  any  required  strength  between  the  two  ? 

Divide  the  difference  between  the  per  cent,  of  the  first,  and 
the  required  per  cent,  by  the  difference  between  the  per  cent,  of 
the  second  and  the  required  per  cent. 

Having  a  wine,  etc.,  of  18  per  cent.,  and  another  of  8  per 
cent.,  how  much  of  the  second  is  required  for  every  gallon  of 
the  first  to  produce  one  of  12  per  cent.? 

18  —  12         6 


.12—8        4 

Or  one  and  one-half  gallons  of  the  second  for  every  gallon  of 
the  first. 

Or,  suppose  we  have  a  wine  of  15  per  cent.,  how  much  brandy 
of  50  per  cent,  must  be  used  for  every  gallon  of  the  first  to  pro- 
duce a  wine  of  20  per  cent.? 

20  —  15         5  1 

50  —  20        30  "  6 

Or  one-sixth  of  a  gallon  of  the  brandy  must  be  used  for  each 
gallon  of  the  wine. 

PLASTERING. 

It  is  a  Common  Practice  in  Spain  and  in  the  southern  part 
of  France  to  plaster  the  wines,  by  adding  more  or  less  gypsum, 
or  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  either  thrown  upon  the  grapes  before 


MISCELLANEOUS.  209 

or  after  crushing,  or  is  added  to  the  must.  Gypsum  is  known  to 
chemists,  when  pure,  as  calcium  sulphate  (sulphate  of  lime), 
but  contains  a  certain  amount  of  water  of  crystallization,  and  is 
generally  found  associated  with  other  substances,  such  as  rock 
salt,  and  calcium  carbonate,  or  limestone.  It  is  the  commonest 
impurity  found  in  spring  water,  and  gives  water  its  permanent 
hardness.  Much  has  been  written  for  and  against  the  practice  of 
plastering,  and  both  sides  of  the  question  have  strong  advocates. 

Objects. — There  are  many  different  reasons  given  for  the  prac- 
tice, some  of  which  are  fanciful.  It  is  claimed  that  it  retards 
fermentation,  and  that  red  wines  under  its  effects  develop  more 
color,  because  the  marc  can  be  left  longer  in  the  fermenting  vat; 
that  the  froth  of  plastered  wine  is  livelier  and  sooner  disappears, 
which  pleases  the  merchants;  and  that  it  has  a  preservative  effect 
upon  the  wine.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  it  renders  the  wine 
dryer  and  harsher,  as  it  does,  if  used  to  excess,  and  by  others, 
that  it  unites  with  a  portion  of  the  water  of  the  juice,  and  renders 
the  remaining  juice  richer  in  sugar.  Again,  it  is  added  to  neu- 
tralize a  portion  of  the  acid  contained  in  the  must. 

Chemical  Effects. —  Maumene  says  that  it  transforms  the 
potassium  salts  of  the  wine  into  insoluble  lime  salts  and  potas- 
sium sulphate,  and  this  may  have  an  important  effect  upon  fer- 
mentation, for  some  chemists  attribute  to  the  acid  potassium 
tartrate  the  property  of  holding  ferments  in  solution,  and  that 
potassium  sulphate,  even  with  the  freed  tartaric  acid,  does  not 
possess  this  power;  that  the  carbonate  of  lime  contained  in 
the  plaster,  in  neutralizing  the  acidity  of  the  tartar,  without 
doubt  contributes  to  the  precipitation  of  the  ferment  which  this 
salt  held  in  solution;  and  that  during  the  neutralization,  car- 
bonic acid  is  disengaged,  and  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture 
carried  up  by  the  gas  somewhat  lowers  the  temperature.  He 
supposes  that  all  these  causes  combined  retard  the  fermentation. 

P.  Carles  (J.  Pharm.  Chim.  [5],  6,  118-123),  says  that  the 
calcium  sulphate  acts  on  the  potassium  bitartrate  in  the  juice  of 
the  grape,  forming  calcium  tartrate,  tartaric  acid,  and  potassium 


210  MISCELLANEOUS. 

sulphate,  a  large  proportion  of  the  last  two  bodies  remaining  in 
the  wine.  That  without  plastering,  wine  contains  about  two 
grammes  per  litre  of  pure  tartaric  acid,  whilst  after  plastering, 
it  contains  double  or  treble  that  amount,  and  even  more,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  potassium  bitartrate  decomposed . 

In  order  to  make  clear  what  this  chemist  says,  in  ordinary 
language,  we  will  say  that  the  gypsum  acts  upon  the  cream  of 
tartar  in  the  grape  juice,  sets  free  a  portion  of  the  tartaric  acid 
existing  in  combination  in  it,  and  also  forms  tartrate  of  lime  and 
sulphate  of  potash. 

At  first  sight,  therefore,  it  would  seem  that  the  addition  of 
gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  actually  increases  the  acid,  and  this 
would  be  true  if  the  gypsum  consisted  of  pure  calcium  sulphate, 
but  it  always  contains  more  or  less  calcium  carbonate,  and  this 
substance,  which  is  but  another  name  for  chalk,  limestone,  or 
marble,  precipitates  the  free  tartaric  acid,  and  the  carbonate  of 
lime  does  what  is  generally  claimed  for  the  gypsum — diminishes 
the  acidity  of  the  wine.  But  if  the  calcium  carbonate  does  not 
exist  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  gypsum  to  precipitate  all  the 
tartaric  acid  set  free,  the  opposite  effect  would  be  produced. 
Why  not  add  marble  dust  at  once? 

The  experiments  given  in  Thudichum  and  Dupre's  work  show 
that  the  amount  of  water  withdrawn  from  must  by  the  addition 
of  even  anhydrated  plaster  is  so  small  as  to  be  unworthy  of 
notice,  being  only  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  plaster  used. 

Effects  Oil  the  Health. — This  question  was  examined  at  Mont- 
pellier,  in  France,  by  a  committee  of  chemists  appointed  by  the 
court,  and  the  results  of  their  inquiries  are  frequently  cited  by 
those  who  are  in  favor  of  plastering: 

1.  That  the    plastered  wine  contains  no   new  mineral   sub- 
stance. 

2.  That  the  quantity  of  plaster  introduced  into  the  wine  may 
be  considered  null,  because  it  is  entirely  changed  into  potassium 
sulphate,  a  slightly  purgative  salt,  analogous  in   this  respect  to 
tartar. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  211 

Later,  however,  a  commission  was  appointed  by  the  Conseil  des 
Armees,  who  reported  as  follows: 

1.  That   by  the  taste,  plastered  wines  could  not  be'  distin- 
guished from  the  natural  ones. 

2.  That  plaster  diminished  the  intensity  of  the  color.     (This, 
of  course,  refers  to  the  direct  effect.) 

3.  That  the  potassium  bitartrate,  one  of  the  most  useful  prin- 
ciples contained  in  wine,  is  decomposed  by  plaster,  and  that 
potassium  sulphate  is  formed,  which  remains  in  solution,  and 
calcium  tartrate,  which  is  precipitated. 

4.  That  potassium  phosphate,  also  one  of  the  salts  naturally 
contained  in  wine,  is  equally  decomposed  by  plaster. 

5.  That  plastering  profoundly  modifies  the  nature  of  wines, 
by  substituting  for  the  potassium  bitartrate  a  purgative  salt  in 
the  proportion  of  from  3  to  more  than  7  grammes  per  litre. 

And  they  demand  the  exclusion  of  all  wine  containing  more 
than  4  grammes  of  the  sulphate  per  litre. 

And  Mr.  Carles,  above  quoted,  concludes  that,  owing  to  the 
purgative  effect  of  this  salt,  potassium  sulphate,  the  quantity 
present  should  not  exceed  2  grammes  per  litre,  or  half  as  much 
as  the  army  commission  allow. 

Still  later,  we  have  the  instructions  of  the  Minister  of  Justice 
of  France  to  the  procureurs  Generaux,  issued  in  1880,  as  follows: 

After  several  judicial  decisions  relative  to  the  sale  of  plastered 
wines,  one  of  my  predecessors  expressed  to  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Commerce  the  desire  that  new  experiments 
should  be  made  in  order  to  establish,  if  in  the  present  state  of 
science  the  immunity  accorded  to  plastered  wines  by  the  circular 
of  July  21,  1858,  should  be  maintained. 

Having  examined  the  question,  the  consultation  committee  of 
public  hygiene  issued  the  following  notice: 

1 .  That  the  absolute  immunity  which  plastered  wines  enjoy 
on  account  of  the  circular  of  the  Minister  of  Justice  dated  July 
21,  1858,  ought  no  longer  to  be  officially  allowed. 


212  MISCELLANEOUS. 

2.  That  the  presence  of  potassium  sulphate  in  the  wines  of 
commerce,  which  results  from  plastering  the  must,  from  the 
mixture  of  plaster  or  sulphuric  acid  with  the  wine,  or  from  cut- 
ting with  plastered  wines,  should  only  be  tolerated  to  the  maxi- 
mum limit  of  2  grammes  per  litre  (about  117  grains  per  gallon). 

In  calling  my  attention  to  this  notice,  rny  colleague  of  agricul- 
ture and  commerce  informs  me  that  he  completely  concurs. 

He,  therefore,  instructs  the  officers  to  prosecute,  under  the 
laws  against  adulterations,  the  dealers  who  shall  sell  wine  con- 
taining more  than  the  quantity  indicated  of  potassium  sulphate, 
as  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  consumers. 

Plastering  Sherry— Quantity  Used.— Mr.  Vizitelli  says  that 
during  his  stay  at  Jeres,  he  paid  particular  attention  to  the 
plastering  question,  saw  the  gypsum  applied  in  almost  a  hun- 
dred instances,  and  questioned  the  overseers  in  scores  of  vine- 
yards. He  states  that  within  his  own  knowledge  gypsum  is  by 
no  means  invariably  used  in  the  vinification  of  sherry,  as  already 
stated  under  the  head  of  Sherry.  And  although  applied  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  but  a  few  pounds  per  butt  are  used,  say  G  Ibs. 
at  most  in  a  dry  season,  and  a  little  more  than  double  that 
quantity  in  years  when  great  dampness  prevails.  And  he  argues 
from  the  Montpellier  experiment,  already  mentioned,  where  the 
committee  added  40  grammes  of  gypsum  to  a  litre  of  wine,  and 
found  only  1.240  grammes  of  sulphate  of  potash  per  litre  where 
pure  calcium  sulphate  was  used,  and  1.828  grammes  where  ordi- 
nary plaster  was  employed,  that  when  the  Spaniards  add  the 
amount  which  they  do  to  the  must  in  sherry  making,  no  injury 
to  the  wine  can  occur.  It  may  be  proper  to  suggest,  however, 
for  the  benefit  of  future  inquirers,  that  wine,  after  insensible 
fermentation,  contains  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  potassium 
bitartrate  which  was  contained  in  the  grape,  the  greater  part  of 
it  having  been  deposited  with  the  lees  and  the  marc.  Wines 
do  not  contain  tartar  enough  to  furnish  2  grammes  per  litre  of 
potassium  sulphate,  nor  enough  to  act  upon  1  gramme  of  pure 
gypsum.  But  it  is  far  otherwise  with  grape  juice.  Now  6  Ibs. 
of  gypsum  to  one  butt  of  wine  of  108  Imperial  gallons  would  be 


MISCELLANEOUS.  213 

the  same  as  about  5.5  grammes  per  litre,  and  if  pure,  ought  to 
produce,  on  being  fully  satisfied  with  the  acid  potassium  tartrate, 
as  much  as  8  grammes  per  litre  of  potassium  sulphate,  and  Mr. 
Carles,  above  quoted,  says  that  it  does  amount  to  from  4  to  7.5 
grammes  per  litre  in  plastered  wines. 

Supposing  the  following  to  be  the  correct  reaction,  1  gramme 
of  pure  gypsum  ought  to  produce,  with  2.6  grammes  of  cream 
of  tartar,  1.477  grammes  of  sulphate  of  potash;  and  to  produce 
.the  2  grammes  per.  litre  of  the  latter  would  only  require  1.353  of 
the  former;  and  but  a  little  more  than  1  Ib.  of  pure  gypsum 
could  safely  be  added  to  100  gallons  of  must: 

Ca  SO4  +  2  C4  H,  KO(,  =  C4  H4  Ca  O(,  +  C4  Hb  O6  +  K.  SO4 

As  the  gypsum  is  usually  added  to  the  pomace  itself,  or  to  the 
grapes  before  crushing,  it  is  unsafe  to  argue  from  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  adding  it  to  wine. 

By  Adding  Water  to  must,  the  effects  of  plastering  may  be 
produced,  if  the  water  is  hard  by  reason  of  the  gypsum  contained 
in  it. 

SHERRY     FLAVOR. 

In  many  California  wines  a  flavor  called  the  ' '  sherry  flavor "  is 
often  observed;  and  in  the  red  wines  may  frequently  be  tasted 
what  would  with  equal  propriety  be  called  a  "  port  flavor;"  and 
the  "  sherry  flavor"  would  by  some  be  called  a  "Madeira  flavor." 

Mr.  Polmdorff  stated  at  the  State  Yiticultural  Convention  of 
1882,  that  he  was  of  the  opinion  that  this  flavor  was  due  to  the 
oxidation  of  the  wine.  If  this  is  so,  the  remedy  would  be  to 
use  greater  care  in  its  management,  and  avoid  exposing  it  to  the 
air,  in  fact,  observe  just  the  treatment  indicated  in  this  book  for 
all  but  sweet  and  fortified  wines. 

Without  attempting  to  say  anything  authoritative  on  the  sub- 
ject, the  author  would  suggest  that  in  addition  to  the  above  cause, 
these  flavors  are  largely  due,  first,  to  our  hot  climate;  second,  to 
over-maturity  of  the  grapes;  and  third,  to  aging  the  wine  in  too 
high  a  temperature;  for  these  conditions  all  exist  in  southern 


214 


MISGELLA  NEO  US . 


countries,  whose  wines  are  apt  to  have  a  peculiar  flavor,  called 
by  some  writers  the  "cooked  flavor,"  which  is  unobjectionable  in 
a  sweet  wine.  The  first  is  not  always  within  the  control  of  the 
producer,  but  the  two  last  can  always  be  controlled  by  the  grape 
grower  and  the  cellar-man. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE   I. 


Balling's  degrees  (per  cent,  of  sugar)  Corresponding  degrees  Baume, 
and  specific  gravity  at  63J°  F. — Ghas.  Stammer. 


1 

L 

I 

i 

.fT 

s 

g 

0   3 

S  ~ 

1 

1 

0   3 

c5  ~ 

D 

o 

O   3 

1 

o 

l] 

1 

o 

1  J 

O. 

rt 

^ 
1 

(A 

I 

1 

£ 

I 

*. 

o 

I 

1  « 
I 

" 

o 
I 

I  .56 

I  .0039 

26 

'4-35 

.1107 

51 

27.71 

1.2383 

76^40.36 

I  .3894 

2 

I.  II 

.0078 

27 

14.00 

•1154 

52 

28.24 

.2439 

77 

40.84 

•3959 

3 

1.67 

.OII7 

28 

15-44 

.1201 

53 

28.75 

.2495 

78 

41-33 

.4025 

4  2.23 

-0157 

29 

15-99 

.1249 

54 

29.27 

.2552 

79 

41.81 

.4092 

5 

2.78 

.0197 

3° 

l6-53 

.1297 

55 

29.79 

.2609 

80 

42.29 

•4159 

6 

3-34 

.0234 

31 

17.07 

•I345 

56 

30-3I 

.2666 

81 

42.78 

.4226 

7 

3-89 

.0278 

32 

17.61 

57 

30.82 

.2724 

82 

43-25 

•4293 

8 

4-45 

.0319 

33 

18.15 

.1442 

58 

31-34 

.2782 

83 

43-73 

.4361 

9 

5.oo 

.0360 

34 

18.69 

.1491 

59 

3I-85 

.2840 

84 

44.21 

-443° 

10 

5.56 

.O4OI 

35 

19.23 

"-I54I 

60 

32-36 

.2899 

85 

44.68 

-4499 

ii 

6.ii 

•0443 

36 

19.77 

•i59i 

61 

32-87 

.2958 

86 

45-15 

.4568 

12 

6.66 

.0485 

37 

20.30 

.1641 

62 

33.38 

.3018 

87 

45.62 

.4638 

*3 

7.22 

.0528 

38 

20.84 

.1692 

63 

33.89 

.3078 

88 

46.09 

.4708 

14 

7-77 

.0570 

39 

21.37 

64 

3440 

.3138 

89 

46.56 

.4778 

15 

8.32 

.0613 

40 

21.91 

.1794 

65 

34.901  .3199 

90 

47-02 

-4849 

16 

8.87 

0657 

41  22.44 

.1846 

66 

3540 

.3260 

91 

47-48 

.4920 

17 

9.42 

.0700    42  22.97 

.1898 

67 

35-90 

.3322 

92 

47-95 

.4992 

18 

9-97 

.0744    4323.50 

.1950 

68 

36.41 

-3384 

93 

48.40 

.5064 

19 

10.52 

.0787 

|  4424-03 

.2003 

69 

36.91 

•3446 

94 

48.86 

•5136 

20 

11.07 

.0833 

45  24.56   .2056 

70 

37-40 

•3509 

95 

49-32 

.5209 

21 

11.62 

.0878 

4625.09 

.2110 

71 

37-90 

•3572 

96 

49-77 

.5281 

22 

12.17 

.0923 

.2164 

72 

38.39 

.3636 

97 

50.22 

•5355 

23 

12.72 

.0969 

48  26.14 

.2218 

73 

38.89 

•3700 

98 

50.67 

.5429 

24 

13.26 

.1015 

49  26.67 

.2273 

74  39.38   -3764 

99 

51.12 

-5504 

25 

13.81 

.IO6l 

50  27.19;  .3328  |  75  39.87;  .3829 

IOO 

5L56 

-5578 

OECHSLE'S  MUST  SCALE  indicates  specific  gravity  to  three  decimal 
places.  When  two  figures  are  shown  on  the  scale,  a  cipher  before 
them  must  be  understood.  For  instance:  83  means  1.083,  or  20 
per  cent.,  Balling;  and  106  means  1.106,  or  25  per  cent.,  Balling. 


216 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  II. 


Baume's  degrees,  corresponding  degrees,  Sailing  (per  cent,  sugar,} 
and  specific  gravity  at  93  J°  F. 


[  I 

1 

N  i 

| 

I  i 

i 

\ 

| 

'I 

bp  3 

ctf 

o 

i 

l\ 

O 

1 

ba    * 

o 

1 

w  * 

6 

1 

Si! 

* 

*o 

1 
1 

.s  a 

§   « 

£ 

*o 

1 

1    g 
*rt     u 

w    2 

o 

1 

1   ^ 

o 

I 

1 

i 

i 

I 

1 

a 

i 

'Jl 

i 

•Jl 

I 

•Jl 

C£ 

o.o 

O.OO 

1  .0000 

13 

23.52 

1  .0992 

26 

47-73 

1  .2203 

39 

73.23 

1-3714 

0.5 

0.90 
1.  80 

.0035 

.0070 

13-5 

24-43 

25-35 

.1034 

.1077 

26.5 

27 

48.68 
49-63 

•2255 
.2308 

39.5 
40 

74.25 
75-27 

.3846 

1.5 

2.69 

.0105 

14-5 

26.27 

.II2O 

27.5 

50-59 

.2361 

40.576.29 

•3913 

2 

3-59 

.0141 

15 

27.19 

.1163 

28 

51-55 

.2414 

4i     77.32 

.3981 

2-5 

4-49 

•  1177 

15.5 

28.10 

.I2O6 

28.5 

52-51 

.2468 

4i.578.35 

.404-; 

3 

5-39 

.,213 

16 

29.03 

.1250 

29 

53-47 

.2522 

42    |79-39 

.4118 

3-5 

6.29 

.0249 

16.5 

29.95      -T-94 

29.5:54.44 

.2576 

42.  5  1  80.43 

.4187 

4 

7.19 

.0286 

17 

30.87 

.1339 

30     S5A7 

.2632 

43    |8i-47 

.426; 

4-5 

8.09 

.0323 

17.5 

31.79 

30.5,56.37 

.2687 

43-5 

82.51 

.4323 

5 

9-00 

.0360 

18 

32.72 

.1429 

3i   -07-34 

•2743 

44 

83.56 

.4400 

5-5 

9.90 

-0397 

18.5 

33>65 

.1474 

3i-5|53.32 

.2800 

44-5 

84.62 

.4472 

6 

10.80 

•0435 

19 

.1520 

32    159.29 

.2857 

45 

85.68 

.4545 

6-5 

11.70        .0473 

.19-5 

35-50 

.1566 

32.560.27 

.2915 

45-5 

86.74 

.4619 

7 

12.61,       .0511 

20 

36.44 

•16131  33 

61.25 

•2973 

46 

87.81        .4694 

7-5 
8 

^•Si;     -°549 
14.42      .0588 

20.537-37 

21       38.30 

.1660 
.1707 

33-5 
34 

62.23 
63.22 

•3032 
.3091 

46.5 
47 

88.88 
89.96 

.4769 
.4845 

8-5 

15.32      .0627 

21.539.24 

•1755 

34-5 

64.21 

47.5 

91.03 

.4922 

9 

16.23 

.0667 

22     40.17      -i3o3 

35 

65.20 

.3211 

48 

92.12 

.5000 

9-5 

17.14 

.0706 

22.541.11      .1852 

35-5 

66.19 

.3272 

48.5 

93.21 

.5079 

10 

18.05 

.0746 

23 

42.05      .1901 

36     67.19 

•3333 

49 

94-3° 

.5158 

10.5  18.96 

.0787 

23.5 

42.99      .1950 

36.5  68.19 

•3395 

49.5 

95.40      .5238 

ii      19.87 

.0827 

24 

43-94 

.2000 

37 

69.19 

•3458 

50 

96.51      .$319 

11.520.78 

.o368 

24.5 

44.88 

,2050 

37-5 

70.20 

.3521 

50.5 

97.6.'     .5401 

12    -21.69      .0909 

25 

45.83      .2101 

38 

71.20 

.3585 

98.7:'     .5484 

12.5(22.60!     .0951 

25.5 

46.78      .2152 

38.5  72-22 

•3649 

5L5 

99-851     .5568 

APPENDIX. 


217 


TABLE  III. 


Baume's  degrees  and  corresponding  per  cent,  of  sugar  at  60 J  F. 


Baumo 

degrees 

Sugar      . 
per  cent. 

Baume 
degrees 

Sugar 
per  cent. 

P>;UIMH; 
de;;rces 

Sugar 
per  cent. 

Baumo 
degrees 

Sugar 
per  cent. 

I 

1.72 

II 

19.83 

21 

38.29 

31 

57.31 

2 

3-50 

12 

21.71 

22 

40.17 

32 

59.27 

3 

5.30 

13 

23-54 

23 

42.03 

33 

61.23 

4 

7.09 

14 

25-34 

24 

43.92 

34 

63.18 

5 

8.90 

15 

27.25 

25 

45-79 

35 

65.19 

6 

10.71 

16 

29.06 

26 

47.70 

36 

67.19 

7 

12.52 

17 

30.89 

27 

49.60 

37 

69.19 

8 

14.38 

18 

3275 

28 

5i.5o 

38 

71.22 

9 

16.20 

19 

34.60 

29 

53-42 

39  • 

73.28 

10 

18.04 

20 

36.40 

30 

55.36 

40 

75-35 

218 


APPENDIX. 

TABLE    IV 


Showing  the  specific  gravities  of  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water,  containing 
from  o.i  to  30  per  cent,  by  volume,  of  absolute  alcohol,  and  corresponding  per 
cent,  by  weight,  for  erery  o.i  per  cent,  by  volume,  compared  with  water  at  60°  F. 

The  specific  gravity  of  absolute  alcohol  according  to  U.  S.  standard  being  .7939, 
referred  to  water  at  its  greatest  density  as  unity,  or  .79461,  referred  to  water  at 
60°  F. 


J     w 

— 

I 

Jj 

.0 

1      1 

S    S 

?- 

~        :J  |    i 

"°     ~ 

c 

!  1 

If 

§  * 

§  | 

5       3 

!'i 

o  *S 

£ 

& 

1 

I 

•&    ' 

£ 

I 

i  ft, 

s.    1* 

* 

CO 

O.I 

0.08 

.99986 

3-8 

3-04 

.99460 

7-5 

6.  02 

.98974     I  1.  2 

9-03 

•98530 

0.2 

0.16 

.99972 

!  3-9 

3-12 

•99445 

7-6 

6.10 

.98961     11.3 

9.11 

.98519 

0-3 

0.24 

•99957 

4.0 

3-20 

•9943  * 

7-7 

6.18 

.98949   *  l  -4 

9.20 

.98508 

0.4 

0.32 

•99943 

4.1 

3.28 

•99417 

7.8 

6.26 

.98936   11.5 

9.28 

.98497 

o-5 

0.40 

•99929 

4.2 

3.36 

.99403 

7-9 

6-35 

.98924  ii  .6 

9-36 

.98486 

0.6 

0.48 

•99915 

4-3 

3-44 

.99388 

8.0 

6.43 

.9891  1    1  1  ./ 

9-44 

•98475 

0.7 

0.56 

.99901 

;  4-4 

3.52 

•99374 

8.1 

6.51 

.98899   1  1.  8 

9-52 

.98463 

0.8 

0.64 

.99886 

i4-5 

3-6o 

.99360 

8.2 

6-59 

.98886  11.9 

9.60 

•98452 

0.9 

0.72 

.99872 

.  4-6 

3-68 

.99346 

8.3  , 

6.67 

.98874    12  io 

9.69 

.98441 

.0 

0.80 

.99858 

!  4-7 

3-76 

•99332 

8.4 

6-75 

.98861     12.  1 

9-77 

.98430 

.1 

0.88 

.99844 

4.8 

3-84 

•993  1  7 

8.5 

6.8; 

.08849.   12.2 

9.85 

.98419 

.2 

0.96 

.99830 

!    4-9 

3-92 

•99303J 

8.6 

6.91 

.08837     12.3    ' 

9-93 

.98408 

•3 

.04 

.99815 

']  5-o 

4.00 

.99289 

8-7 

7.00 

-08824    12.4 

10.011.98397 

•4 

.12 

.99801 

4.08 

.99276 

8.8 

7.08 

.98812     12-5 

IO.IO 

.98386 

•5 

.20 

•99787 

i     S-2 

4.16 

•99263 

8.9 

7.16 

.98799   12.6 

10.18 

.98375 

.6 

.28 

•99773 

!  5-3 

4.24 

.99250; 

9-0 

7-24 

.08787     2.7 

10.26 

.98364 

•7 

•36 

•99759 

5-4 

4.32 

.99237; 

9.1 

•  32 

.08775     2.8 

10.34 

•98352 

1.8 

•44 

•99744 

5-5 

4.40 

.99224 

;  9.2 

.40 

.08762     2.9 

10.42 

.98341 

1.9 

•52  -9973° 

5-6 

4-49 

1.99211 

:      9-3 

.48 

.08750    3.0 

10.51 

•98330 

2.0 

.60  .99716 

5-7 

4-57 

I-99I98 

9-4 

•  57 

•98737     3-1 

10.59 

.98319 

2.1 

.68  1:99702     5.8 

4-65 

;.99i86 

').5 

.6", 

.98725     3.2 

10.67 

.98308 

2.2 

.761.99688 

5-9 

4.73 

•99I73 

0-6 

•73 

•9S7I3  :'    3-3 

10.75 

.98297 

2-3 

.841.99673 

6.0 

4.81 

.99160 

0-7 

.81 

.98700  13.4 

10.83 

.98286 

2.4 

.92  '.99659 

6.1 

4.89 

.99148 

9.8 

.80 

.98688  13.5 

10.92 

.98275 

2-5 

2.00  .99645 

6.2 

4.97 

•00135 

9-9 

.97 

.98675  13.6 

IO.IO 

.98264 

2.6 

2.08  .99631 

6-3 

5-05 

-00123 

IO.O 

8.05 

.98663  13.7 

1  1.  08 

.98253 

2.7 

2.16  .99617 

6.4 

5  •  *  .1 

.001  10 

10.  1 

8.14 

.98652  13.8 

11.16 

.98242 

2.8 

2.24  .99602 

5.21 

.90008 

,10.2 

8.22 

.98641    13.9 

11.24 

.98231 

2.9 

2.32  .99588 

^  6.6 

5.29 

.09086 

10.3 

8.30 

.98630  14.0 

i  1  -33 

.98220 

2.  401.  99574 

6.7 

5-37 

.09073 

10.4 

8.38 

.08619  14.1 

11.41 

.98209 

3.1 

2.48  .99560 

6.8 

5-45 

.99061 

10.5 

8.46 

.98608   14.2 

11.49 

.98199 

3-2 

2.56  .99546 

6.0 

5-54 

.99048 

10.6 

8.54 

.98597   14.3  , 

"•57 

.98188 

3-3 

2.64.99531 

7.0 

5-62 

•99036 

iio.7 

8.62 

.98586  14.4 

11.65 

.98178 

3-4 

2.  72'.  99517 

7-1 

v7° 

.99024 

10.8 

8.71 

.98574   14.5 

11.74 

.98167 

3-5 

2.7Q!.  99503 

,    7-2 

5-78 

.99011 

10.9 

8.79 

.98563   14.6 

11.82 

.98156 

3-6 

2.  88  ,.99488 

!  7-3 

5.86,.  98999 

[II.  O 

8.87 

.98552  14.7 

11.90 

.98146 

3.7      2.961.99474 

'''  7-4 

1  5-94 

.989861111.1 

8.95 

.98541    14.8 

11.98 

.98135 

APPENDIX. 

TABLE  IV.— Continued. 


£ 

* 

f 

2 

£ 

^  1 

JS 

j, 

| 

Ja 

jt 

•? 

j    E 
§1 

If 

E 
O 

.      4> 

c    S 

4)      3 
"    1 

If 

o 

o 

|  J 

if 

f 

s-l 
g| 

O 

(^        > 

1  * 

I 

r 

Jf 

I 

&   > 

i  * 

"G 
1 

P 

A* 

1 

en 

en 

14.9 

12.07 

.98125 

i8.7 

15-21 

-97733 

22.5 

18.37 

•97344 

26.3 

21-55 

.96950 

15-0 

12.15 

.98114 

18.8 

15.29 

.977221     22.6 

18.45 

-97334 

26.4 

21.64 

.96939 

12.23 

.98104 

18.9 

15-37 

.97712    22.7  18.53  .97323 

26.5 

21.72 

15-2 

12.32 

.98094 

19  o  15.46 

.97702       22.8  18.62 

•97313 

26.6 

21.81 

.96917 

15-3 

12.40 

.98083 

19.1  15.54 

.97692       22.9,1870.97302 

26.7 

21.89 

.96906 

15.4 

12.49 

.98073      19.2  15.62 

.97682     23.oji8.78  .97292' 

26.8 

21.98 

96896 

15.5 

12.57 

.98063 

19-3  I5.70.9767*     23.1  18.87 

.97282! 

26.9 

22.06 

.96885 

15.6 

12.65 

.98053!     19.415.78.97661      23.218.95.97272! 

27.0 

22.15 

.96874 

£.8 

12.73 
12.82 

.98042      19.5:15.87  .97651      23.3119.04 
.98032      19.615.95.97641      23.419.12 

.97261 
•96251 

27.1 
27.2 

22.23 
22.32 

.96863 
-96853 

15-9 

12.90 

.98021  |    19.716.041.97631!    23.5 

19.20 

.97241 

27-3 

22.40 

.96842 

16.0 

12.98 

.98011!    19.816.12.97620     23.619.29 

.97231 

27.4 

22.48 

.96832 

16.1 

13.06.98001;    19.916.20.97610    23.719.37 

.97221 

27-5 

22.57 

.96821 

16.2 

13.14.97990    20.016.29.976001    23.8 

19.45 

.97210 

27.6 

22.65 

.96810 

16.3 

I3.22J.97980      20.1  16.37  -9759°      23.9119.54 

.97200 

27.7 

22.74 

.96799 

16.4 

13-31  -97969;    20.2  16.45  ,.9758o':  24.019.62 

.97190 

27.8 

22.82 

.96789 

16.5 

13.39  .97959 

20.3 

16.5^1.97569  :  24.1  19.71 

.97180 

27-9 

22.91 

•96778 

16.6 

13.47  .97940     20.4  i6.62i.97559     24.2  19.79 

.97170 

28.0 

22.99 

.96767 

16.7 

I3.55.97938     20.5,16.70.97549     24.3119.87 

.97159 

28.1 

23.07 

16.8 

13.631.97928     20.6.16.79  .97539     24.4  19.96 

.97149 

28.2 

23.16 

.96745 

16.9 

17.0 

I3-7I  -97917:    20.7li6.87:.97529     24.5 
13.80.97907     20.816.95.97518     24.6 

20.04  .97139 
20.131.97129 

28.3  23.24 
28.423.33 

•96733 
.96722 

17.1 

13-88;.  97897 

20.7  17.03 

.97508     24.7 

20.21    .97118       28.5:23.41 

.96711 

17.2 

13.96  .97887  1  21.0  17.12  .97498  ;  24.8  20.29  .97108 

28.623.50 

.96700 

17.3 

I4.o5;.97876;i  21.117.20.97488;  24.920.38.97097     28.723.58 

.96689 

17.4 

14.  13:.  97866  j  21.2 

17.  28;.  97478    25.0  20.46  .97087 

28.823.67 

.96677 

17-5. 

14.21  .97856,    21.3 

17-37.97467;  25.120.55.97076   28.923.75 

.96666 

17.6    14.29.97846     21.417.45.97457     25.2 

20.63  .97066, 

29.0  23.84 

.96655 

17.7    14.381.97835     21.5117.53.97447     25.3 

20.71    .97055 

29.1  23.93 

.96644 

17.8 

14.46  .97825 

21.6 

17.62 

.97437:    25.4 

20.80  .97045; 

29.2  24.01 

.96632 

17.9 

14.54  .97814 

21.7 

17-70 

.97427  |  25.5 

20.88  .97034 

29.324.10 

.96621 

18.0 

14.62  .97804 

21.8 

17-78 

.97416!  25.6 

20.97  97023 

29.424.18 

.96609 

18.1 

14.71 

•97794 

21.9 

17.87  .97406;  25.7 

21.05.97013     29.524.27 

.96598 

18.2    14.79  -97784 

22.0 

17-95 

•97396  i  25.821.13  .97002 

29.6124.35 

.96587 

18.3 

14.87 

•97773 

I    22.1 

18.03 

.97386 

25.921.22 

.96992 

29.7  24.44 

.96575 

18.4 

14.96  .97763 

!    22.2 

18.12 

-97375 

26.0  21.30 

.96981 

29.8  24.52  .96564 

18.5 
1  8.  6 

15-04  -97753 
15.121.97743 

22.3 
1    22.4 

1  8.  20 

18.28 

.9736511  26.1 
•97354  '  26.2 

21.39 
21.47 

.96970 
.96960 

29.9  24.61 
30.0  24.69 

.96552 
.96541 

The  basis  of  the  foregoing  table  is  Table  III  of  the  U.S.  Manual  for  Inspec- 
tors of  spirits,  giving  the  respective  volumes  of  absolute  alcohol  and  water  in  100 
volumes  of  spirits  of  different  strengths,  for  every  0.5  per  cent,  by  volume,  and 
the  specific  gravities,  referred  to  water  at  60°  F. 


220  TABLE  T. 

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222 


APPENDIX. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Acetic  acid 194 

fermentation    30 

Acid  in  California  wines x,22O 

in  European  wines xii 

increased  by  stems    20 

in  wine x,xi,xii,    193,220 

see  acetic,  carbonic,  citric,  tar- 
taric,  malic,  pectic,  tannic, 
salicylic,  lactic, valeric,  succinic 
and  plastering. 

Acidity,  disease,  see  sourness. 

in  casks.     65 

Acquired  defect  sand  diseases 137 

Acrity H9 

in  bottles 167 

Adjustable  hoop,  see  utensils. 

Aerating  must    23 

stirring  pomace 42 

see  treading,  air,  influence  of. 

port  wine 112 

Age,  effect  on  wine 51 ,  52    , 

Aging  wine  — effect   of  various   in- 
fluences.    ..." 76 

general  considerations.    76 

requisite  to  make  agreeable  and 

healthful 76 

care  to  age  and  preserve 76 

new  wine .    76 

different    wines  require   different 

periods 76 

development    of     bouquet     and 
flavor 76 


Page. 

Aging  wine,  old  wine,  characteristics 

of 76 

color,  aroma  and  flavor 77 

influences    which    develop,    also 

destroy.. 77 

influences    on    weak    wine    and 

strong  wine 77 

influence  of  the  air,  see  aerating.   77 

variations  of  temperature 78 

influence  of  heat 78 

.aging  by  heat 79 

preserving  by  heat 80 

influence  of  cold  and  frozen  wines  81 

inrraence  of  light 82 

aging  by  sunlight,  insolation....    82 
effect  of  motion  and  voyages... 82— 84 

wines  suitable  for  shipment 82 

aging  by  lining 84 

generally 84 

rine  before  aging 84 

what    wines   gain   the   most    by 

the  processes 85 

heating   Maderia   . . . 113 

see  casks,  size  of 

Air,  influence  of 77 

see  port,  aerating 

Albumen,  see  fining. 

Alcohol  in  California  wines..   ix,x,22O 

in  European  wines xii 

relation  to  sugar II,  28,  34 

required  in  dry  wine II 

to  keep  wine  sweet. 58,  59,106, 107 
in  aging   by  heat So 


224 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Alcohol  required  in  aging  by  sun- 
light     82 

for  shipping  wines 82 

by  weight  and  by  volume 33 

burning  to  arrest  fermentation  .  .    74 

lost  by  evaporation 112 

natural  in  sweet  wines 105 

adding  in  fining. IO2 

to  sweet  wines 105,  106,  107 

to  port. in,  112 

to  sherry 117,  123 

to  Madeira 114 

see  rules. 

amount  in  port H2 

in  Madeira 1 1 5 

in  sherry 1 23 

estimation  of < ...  187 

limits  by  fermentation 36 

Alcoholic  weakness 133 

fermentation,  see  fermentation. 

Aldehyde 3° 

Almonds,  bitter,  see  bouquet,  artificial 

Analysis  of  dry  lees 176 

Areometer •     7 

Aroma,  see  bouquet. 

Arresting  fermentation 72 

see  sulphuring,  sulphurous  acid... 

by  burning  alcohol 74 

aqueous  sulphurous  acid 74 

bisulphite  of  lime 74 

salicylic  acid , 75 

Arrope H9 

Artificial  must 14 

Balling's  saccharometer 7,  8,  9 

Barrels,  see  casks. 

Barrel  flavor , H5 

Basket,  decanting 169 

bottle 205 

Bastardo  grape,  see  port. 
Basto,  see  sherry. 


Page. 

Baume's  saccharometer 7,  8 

Bins  for  bottles 164 

Bisulphite  of  lime 74 

Bitartrate  of  potash,  see  cream  of  tartar 
Bitter  almonds,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 

Bitterness 131,    149 

in  bottles 167 

Blending,  see  cutting. 

sherry 122 

Blood,  see  fining. 
Blotting  paper,  see  fining. 

Bluish  wines 134 

Boiling  must 106 

Borers  of  casks 66 

Bottles,    wine   in,   bottling,   etc.,    see 
wine  in  bottles. 

washer,   drainers 156 

piling 163 

racks  and  bins 164 

baskets 205 

Bouquet,  short  vatting  promotes....  44 

development  of,  by  age 76,  77 

how  lost 77 

generally 194 

artificial 194 

substances  used 196 

iris 196 

strawberry 197 

gillyflower,  stock  gilly 197 

vine  flowers 198 

mignonette 198 

nutmeg 198 

bitter  almonds  and  fruit  pits. ..198 

sassafras 198 

other  aromas 199 

effects ,199 

Brandy,  shipments  of  California,...    vi 

casks,  empty 66 

casks  for 66 

Bung  turned  to  one  side 51,  53 

screw...., ....158 


INDEX 


225 


Page. 

Butyric  fermentation 29 

California,  prices  of  grapes vi 

exports  of  wine  and  brandy vi 

product  of  wine vi 

wines,  alcohol  and  acid  in  .  ix,  x,  220 

wines  compared  ix,  x,  220 

musts viii 

Capsules  and  capsuling 162 

Carbonic  acid  produced  by  fermen- 
tation   34 

in  wine 193 

Carbon  dioxide,  see  carbonic  acid. 

Casks 61 

redwood.  61 

oak,    different    kinds,    principles 

contained  in  61 

temper  with  new  wine 61 

storing 61 

sulphured  before  storing 62 

new,  preparing,  washing 62 

old,  washing 63 

t»  remove  lees,  rinsing  chain 63 

to  examine  inside,  visitor 63 

wash  empty  ones  at  once 64 

do  not  leave  in  the  sun 64 

examine  to  ascertain  condition...  64 

le^ky,  to  expel  bad  air 64 

flatness  in,  acidity  in,  mouldy....   65 

rottenness 66 

brandy,  do  not  sulphur 66 

for  brandy 66 

oil  casks 66 

which  have  contained   aromatic 

liquors 66 

borers 66 

size  of 67 

see  different  winos. 

large,  preferable  67 

why  sulphured  69 

how  sulphured 70 

caution  in  sulphuring 71 


Page. 

Casks,  filling  from  vats 45 

of  new  wine  loosely  closed 48 

must  be  kept  full 48 

bung  to  one  side,  old  wine 51*  53 

for  white  wine 55 

small  for  sweet,  large  for  dry 55 

rilling     during    fermentation    of 

white 55 

see  froth,   racking. 

flavor 145 

how  long  wine  to  remain  in 154 

supporting  and  arranging 89 

implements  for  tipping 95 

Cellars  87 

temperature 87 

dampness,  floors 88 

ventilation,  evaporation 88 

other  precautions 89 

supporting  and  arranging  casks..  89 

for  port 112 

for  sherry 118 

utensils 204 

Cement  for  cork1--,  see  wax. 

Centres,  see  white  wine. 

Chain  for  washing  casks 63 

Charcoal  to  remove  sulphur  flavor..  74 
deprives  wine  of  color  and    car- 
bonic acid 74 

Citric  acid 193 

Clarification,    clarifying    powders,    see 
fining. 

Cleanliness  about  wine  making.94,  203 

Climate  of  sherry  districts 115 

Coal,  see  charcoal. 

Cold,  influence  of  on  wine 81 

Color,  increased  by  long  vatting....  44 
dark,  not  necessary  to  fine  wines  44 

precipitated  by  sulphur 71 

by  blood 101 

removed  by  charcoal 74 

changed  by  age 77 


226 


TND  EX . 


Page. 

Color  affected  by  light 82 

heat  and  motion 83 

weakened  by  fining 99 

want  of 1 34 

dull,  bluish,  lead-colored  wines.. 134 
see  port,  tawny, 
wine,  see  sherry. 

Coloring  matter  in  red  wine 39 

Composition  of  wine 185 

cream  of  tartar 185 

not    composed    of    alcohol    and 

water  alone 185 

alcohol,  acid,     and   sugar  gener- 

ally .-... 185 

table  of  substances  recognized. . .  186 

alcohol  and  estimation  of 187 

stills  for  and  operation 187 

monitor  still 190 

ethers  . .' 1 90 

sugar  and  estimation 190 

mannite 191 

mucilage  and  mellowness 191 

pectose,  pectin 192 

Composition  of  wine 185 

fatty  matters 1 92 

glycerin 1 92 

coloring  matter,  oenocyanine. .  .192 

aldehydes 192 

acids 1 93 

tartaric -193 

malic 193 

citric 193 

pectic 193 

tannic 193 

carbonic 193 

acetic 1 94 

lactic 194 

butyric ,".     .  .  .194 

valeric 1 94 

succinic 194 

total 194 


Page. 
Composition     of     wine,     bouquet, 

natural  and  artificial 194 

Copper  affected  by  wine 202 

Corks 158 

preparation  of 160 

sealing  for 161 

utensils  to  remove,  see  utensils. 
Corking  machines,  corking. .  .  159,  160 

Corkscrews 169 

Cream  of  tartar,  see  plastering,  lees, 
composition  of  wine,  fining. 

Crushing  and  methods  of 22 

aerating  must  by 23 

Crushing  and  stemming,  rapidity  .   24 
special    practice    in    the    Medoc,   24 

effect   of 24 

dry  grapes 108 

Crushers 23 

Cutting  wines 171 

most  French  wines  mixed 171 

AN- hen  necessary,  effect 171 

tithe  wines,  singular  case 171 

no  precise  rules 171 

mix  wines  of  same  nature ....      173 

fine   wines 173 

ordinary   wines 1 74 

time  must  be  allowed 174 

quantity  to  mix. ...     174 

mixing   new  and  old  wines 174 

green  wine 174 

white  and  red  wine 175 

diseased  wines 125,  126,  175 

mixing  grapes 175 

precaution ,...175 

Dampness,  see  cellars. 

Decanting  wine  from  bottles 188 

basket 1 69 

instrument 169 

Decomposition  of  wine,  see  diseases. 


INDEX 


227 


Page 

>efects  and  diseases 125    j 

division,  general  considerations.  125    j 

better  avoided  than  cured 125    I 

not  ahvays  cured  by  mixing. ...  126    j 

doses  in  treating 126 

natural  defects 126    j 

earthy  flavor  and  causes 126    j 

how  prevented,  treatment ....  127 

wild  taste,  grassy  flavor 128    j 

greenness  and  causes 128 

how  prevented,  treatment. ...  129 

roughness 1 30 

not  a  fault,  disappears  in  time.  130 

to  avoid  excess  of  tannin 130 

how  removed 131 

bitterness     and    causes    in    new 

wine 131 

how  prevented,  treatment ....  131 

stem  flavor 131 

sourness  and  causes 132 

how  prevented,  treatment ....  132 

alcoholic  weakness 133    j 

how  avoided,  treatment 133 

want  of  color  and  causes 134 

how   guarded    against,    treat- 
ment   134 

dull,    bluish,  lead -colored    wine, 
flavor  of  lees,  and  causes.    ...  134 

how  avoided,  treatment 135 

putrid  decomposition  and  causes. 1 36 
how  avoided,  treatment  .  137 
several  natural  defects  combined ..137 
acquired  defects  and  diseases.. . .  137 
flat  wines,  flowers,  and  causes. .  .  137 

prevention 1 38 

treatment 139 

sourness,    acidity,    pricked   wine 

and   causes.    ...  140 

what  wines  liable  to 140 

how  prevented,  treatment ....  141 


Page. 
Defects  and  diseases,  pricked  wine, 

experiments   with  substances  in 

treating 142 

Machard's   treatment 144 

other  methods 144 

cask    flavor,    barrel    flavor,    and 

causes 145 

treatment 146 

mouldy  flavor 147 

prevention,  treatment 147 

foreign  flavors 147 

ropiness,  causes  and  treatment .    148 

in  bottled  wines 148,  167 

other  treatment 148 

acrity  and  treatment ....  149 

in  bottles 167 

bitterness 149 

treatment 1 50 

according  to  Maumene 1 50 

in  bottles 167 

fermentation,  taste  of  the    lees, 

yeasty  flavor 151 

how  prevented,  treatment. ...  152 
in  bottles 165 

degeneration,     putrid    fermenta- 
tion     -.87,  152 

in  bottles 167 

duration  of  different  wines 152 

treatment 153 

deposits  and  turbidity  in  bottles. 1 66 
Degeneration  of  wines 87,  152 

see  diseases. 
Density  of  sweet  wines 107 

musts,  see  musts,  different  wines, 

sugar. 
Deposits,  see  diseases,  lees,  wine  in 

bottles. 

Diseases  and  defects 125 

Drainers  for  bottles 156 

Drawing  off,  sec  racking. 

frcm   vats 43,  44,  45 


228 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Dry  grapes,  crushing    108 

wines,  see  white,  red,   treatment 

casks  for 55 

Dull-colored  wine 134 

Duration  of  different  wines 152 

of  fermentation,  see  fermentation, 
different  wines. 

Earthy  flavor 126 

Kchaud 151 

Effervescent    wines  not    to    be  sul- 
phured     71 

Eggs,  see  fining. 

Empty  casks,  see  casks. 

Estufa,  see  Madeira,  heating  house. 

Ethers 190 

European      wines,      alcohol      and 
acid  in xii 

Evaporation  of  wine  in  cellars 88 

weakens  wine 112 

see  casks,  size  of. 

Event,  evente,  see  flatness . 

Exports    of    California  Wine    and 
brandy vi 

Exportation,  see  shipping. 

Fatty  matters  in  wine 1 92 

Ferments,  origin  of 31 

destroyed  by  heat ...    81 

see  yeast,  saccharomyces . 

Fermentation,  its  causes 25 

kinds  of 25 

alcoholic  generally 25 

yeast   plant,  saccharomyces  cere- 

visice 25 

functions  of  yeast 26 

normal      conditions      of     the 

life  of 26 

surface  and  sedimentary.. 26 

physical   conditions,   tempera- 
ture.,     27 


Page. 
Fermentation,  chemical  conditions  27 

action  of  various  chemical  and 

physical  agents 28 

viscous  or  mannitic 29 

lactic 29 

butyric     and     putrefac- 

tive 29,   136,  152,  167 

acetic,  aldehyde 30 

mycoderma     aceti,      mother     of 

vinegar 30 

mycoderma  vini,  flowers  of  wine.  31 

origin  of  ferments 31 

alcoholic,  in  wine  making 32 

sugar,  cane,  grape  or  glucose..  . .  32 
alcohol  by  weight  and  by  volume  33 
its  products,  per  cent,  sugar  to 

per  cent,  alcohol 34 

different  authors 34 

limits  of  sugar  and  spirit 36 

temperature 37 

surrounding  vats  with  straw.  ...    37 

fermenting  houses 38 

duration  of  in  red  wine 44 

in  white  wine 93 

insensible 47 ,  48 

arresting,  see  sulphuring,  arresting. 

by  burning  alcchol 74 

aqueous  solution  of  sulphurous 
acid... ...    74 

bisulphite  of  lime 74 

salicylic   acid 75 

increased  by  stems 20 

by  open  vats .        40 

slow  in  closed  vats 40 

under    pressure    and     not    so 

complete 42 

disease i5l>  ^5 

in  bottles ^5 

see   white  wine,  filling  casks, 

different     wines,      plastering, 

effects  of. 


INDEX. 


229 


Page. 

Fermenting  houses 38,  109 

tanks  or  vats 39,  41 ,  108 

material,  size,  number,  arrange- 
ment of 39 

surrounding   with  straw 37 

filling 39>  40,  108 

open,  closed .    4° 

best  practice 41 

hermetically       sealed,      cooled 

with   condenser 42 

practice  in  the  Medoc 42 

stirring  pomace  in. 42,  108 

drawing  from 43,  44 

Filling  vats 39,  4° 

casks  from  vats 45 

during  fermentation  of   white 

wine 55 

see  froth,  ulling. 
Filtering,  see  fining. 

Fining ...      99 

when  necessary,  objects  of 99 

best  avoided  unless  necessary  .91,  99 

caution 99 

substances  employed 99 

which  act  mechanically,  blot- 
ting paper,  fine  sand,  powder- 
ed stone 99 

filtration 99 

substances    which    act    chem- 
ically and  mechanically ....    99 
gelatinous  substances..    ....    99 

gelatine  proper .100 

its  preparation.. 100 

isinglass,  fish  glue,  ichthyocol.ioo 

its  preparation    100 

adding     cream    of     tartar    for 

white  wine 100 

albuminous  substances 101 

blood,   milk 101 

white  of  eggs 101 

the  fining  for  red  wine.. 101 


Page, 

Fining,  clarifying  powders 102 

gum  arabic 1-2 

addition  of  salt 102 

addition  of  alcohol 102 

addition  of  tannin 102 

method  of  operation 103 

implements  for  stirring   103 

time  necessary  for 103 

new  wines 5° 

sweet  wines 106 

sherry , 1 24 

to  age  wine 84 

before  aging 84 

wines  extracted  from   lees..  179,  180 
P'inings,  see  fining. 

leaving  wine  on 91 ,  104 

Fino,  see  sherry. 
Fish  Glue,  see  fining. 

Flatness,  influence  of  air 78 

in  casks 65 

Flat  wine 137 

Flavor  developed  by  aging 76,  77 

how  lost 77 

causes  of  change  of 77 

sulphur,  causes  and  removal ....    73 

foreign 147 

barrel,   cask 145 

sherry,  madeira,  port 213 

fruity,  see  fruity  flavor. 

Flowers  on  wine 31,  77,  118,  137 

Fortified  wines,  see  sweet  wines. 
Fortifying,  see  alchol. 

rule  for 208 

Foul  casks 64 

French  wines  generally  mixed   ...  171 

alchol  and  acid  in xii 

Froth  in  filling  a  cask 104 

Frozen  wine 81 

Fruity  flavor,  how  lost 50,  52,  99 

preferred  by  gourmets 84 

Fruit  pits,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 


230 


INDEX. 


Funnels,  see  utensils. 
Furmint  wine .  . 


Page. 


107 


Gallons  of  must  per  ton  of  grapes 

200,  201 

of  wine  per  ton  of  grapes 201 

of  liquid,  weight  of 206 

Galvanized  iron  affected  by  wine . .  203 

Gas  in  empty  casks 64 

Gathering  grapes,  maturity,  utensils     I 

number  of  pickers i?  12 

when  to  commence I 

time  of,   successive  gathering 2 

before  complete  maturity 4 

after  complete  maturity 5 

Gelatine,  see   fining. 

General  treatment  of  table  wines . .    86 

sweet  wines IO5 

see  different    wines 

Gillyflower,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 

Glass,  materials  in 157 

Gleucometer,  gleuco-oenometer..    .      8 

Glucose,  must 6 

for  a  gallon  of  wine. 16 

cost  of  glucose  wine 16 

effect  on  Burgundy 14 

experiment   I7 

use  condemned 17 

name  of  user  published 18 

grape  sugar,  generally 32 

Glue,  fish,  see  fining 

Glycerine, produced  by  fermentation  34 
in  wine ,86,  192 

Gourmets,  wine  preferred  by 84    j 

Gout  d' 6vent,  see  flatness . 

de  travail ic 

Graduated  measures,  see  utensils. 

Grand   wines  should  not    be  aged 

artificially 8 

see  different  practices  and  treat- 
ment, red  wine,  white  wine. 


78 


Page. 
Grapes,  prices  in  California  .......      \ 

Mission  ..........  .  .  .  v 

picking  ..................  j 

see  gathering,  maturity. 

sorting  ...............  - 

tons  stemmed   and   crushed  in  a 
da>'  •  •  •  ..............    24 

gallons  of  wine  per  ton  of  ......  201 

juice,  see  must. 

per  cent,  of  stems  in  dffferen  t.  .  .  201 

sugar  ......................  6,  32 

Grassy  flavor  ____  ........  .  .  128 

Green  wine,  mixing  ..............  £74 

Greenness  .-  ........  j^ 

Gumarabic,  see  fining. 
Gypsum,  see  plastering. 

Head  wines,  see  white  wines  . 
Heat,  influence  on  wine 

aging  by 

preserving  by  ..............    80 

destroys  ferment  germs  .......    81 

see  fermentation. 
Heating  Madeira.  .  .  .............  j  r  j 

Hoop,  adjustable,  see  utensils. 
Houses,  fermenting  .........  .38,  109 

Hydrometer  .................  7?  g,  9 

tables,  see  appendix. 

Hygienic  effects  of  red   and    white 
wine  ........................    54 

Ichthyocol,  see  fining. 

Implements,  see  utensils. 

Influences,  effect  of  various  on  wine  76 

which  develop,  also  destroy  .....  77 
Ingredients  in  wine,  see  composition. 
Insensible  fermentation  ..........  47 

when  finished  ...............       4^ 

Insolation,    see  sunlight. 

Iris,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 

Iron  affected  by  wine  ........  202,  203 

Isinglass,  see  fining. 


INDEX. 


231 


Page. 

Juice,  grape,  proportion  to  marc    .200 
see  must. 

Lactic  fermentation 29 

acid 186,  194 

see  milk,  fining. 
Lagar,  see  port,  sherry. 

Lead  affected  by  wine    202 

Lead-colored  wine 134 

Leaky  casks,  see  casks. 

Lees,  marc,  piquette 176 

residues  often  put  in  the  still., . .  176 

wine 176 

should  not  be  neglected 176 

quantity  of  wine  contained  in. .  .  176 
contents  of  dry  parts,  analysis. .  176 

composition  varies 176 

treatment  of 177 

wine  should  not  be  left  long  in 

contact   with 178,  180 

except  sweet 106 

casks  for,  barreling 177 

sulphuring,  storing,  ulling 177 

how  often  to  draw  wine  from.. .  .  178 
from  diseased  wine,  put  by  them- 
selves   178 

extracting   wine  from  with 

siphon 178 

extracting  wine  from  with 

faucet 179 

fining  wine  extracted  from .179 

wines   from   lack   color,   difficult 

to  clarify 180 

red  wine  from,  to  fine 1 80 

white  wine  from,  to  fine.. 1 80 

pressing  thick  sediment 180 

sacks  for 181 

press  for 181 

applying 'pressure 182 

to  remove  from  casks 63 

use  of  dry 182 


Page. 

Lees,  flavor  of 134,  151,  165 

see  racking,  fining,  etc. 

marc  or  pomace,  piquette 182 

unfermented  and  partly  fermented 

pomace 183 

fermented  marc 183 

Pezeyre's  method  of  washing. .  .  .183 
deposits 86,  166 

Light,  influence  on  wine 82 

port    112 

aging  by 82 

Liqueur  wines,  see  sweet  wines. 

Liquid,  to  ascertain  weight  of 206 

Lime,  bisulphite 74 

see  diseases. 

Loss    by  evaporation,    see  cellars, 
casks,  size  of. 

Madeira 113 

making,  casks,  treatment 113 

adding  alcohol 113 

heating,  heating  houses 113 

general  treatment 1 14 

solera  system,  ullage 114 

alcoholic  strength 115 

flavor 213 

Malic  acid 186,  193 

Mannite 186,  191 

Mannitic  fermentation '.....    29 

Marc  of  sweet  wine,  use  of 107 

passing  wine  over 139 

proportion  of  juice  to 200 

see  lees,  marc,  piquette. 

Matches,   sulphur 70 

Matters  in  wine,  see  composition. 

Maturity  of  grapes 3 

signs  of 4 

gathering  before  complete 4 

gathering  after  complete 5 

according  to  required  strength .  .      5 
for  port 108 


232 


INDEX . 


Page,    j 
Maturity  for  sherry 115    j 

of    wine,  see    white,    red    wine, 
aging. 

Maumene's  sulphurer 69    j 

Mellowness,  how  lost 52,  84 

cause  of 191 

see  white,  red  wine. 
Measures,  graduated,  see  utensils. 
Metal  utensils,  wood  preferable...  .202    j 

affected  by  wine , 202* 

Middle  wines, see  white  wines, centres 
Mignonette,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 
Milk,  see  fining. 

Miscellaneous  chapter 200    i 

Mission  grape v    ; 

Mixing  pressings 45,  47     t 

see  red,  white,  port. 

wines,  see  cutting. 

Monte,  vin 151 

Mother  of  vinegar 30 

Motion,  effect  of,  aging 82,  84 

shipping 83 

Mouldy  casks 65 

flavor 147 

Mucilage 186,    191 

Muscat,  sweet 107 

Must,  composition  of 6 

grape  sugar,  glucose 6 

scale,    saccharometer 7,  8 

testing  for  sugar 8 

proper  amount  of  sugar n,  12 

sugaring 13 

nothing  gained  by ...    15 

artificial 14 

cost  of 16 

glucose,  experiment  with 17 

condemned 17 

watering 18 

when  allowable 16 

aerating 23,  43 

rule  for  reducing 206 


Page. 

Must,  why  sulphured 69 

unfermented,   sulphuring 72 

clarifying,  care  of J2 

prepared  in  two  ways 72 

proportion  of  to  marc 200 

shipping 83 

of  sweet  wine 57,  58,  105 

of  dry  white  wine,  density 56 

of  mellow  wine 57,  58 

of  port 108 

boiling 101 

per  ton  of  grapes 201 

California viii 

Musty,  see  mouldy. 

Mute  wine 72 

Mycoderma  aceti 30 

Mycoderma  vini 31 

see  flowers. 

Natural  defects 126 

New  red  wine,   treatment  of 47 

summary  of  rules 5° 

white  wine 5^>  60 

wine  differs  from  old 76 

influence  of  heat 78,  79 

shipping 83 

see  racking,  fining. 
Nutmeg,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 

Oakwood,  see  casks,  vats. 

Oechsle's  must  scale 7,  8,  9,  10 

Oenocyanine 192 

Old  red    wine,  treatment 51 

characteristics 52,   76,  77 

wine,  influence  of  heat 78,  79 

see    racking,     albuminous     sub- 
stances,  fining. 
Oloroso,  see  sherry. 

Passing  wine  over  marc 139 

Pedro  Jimenes  grape 119 


INDEX . 


233 


Page. 

Pectic  acid 193 

Pectin 192 

Pectose 192 

P&se  nirop,  ptse  mout 7 

Picking  grapes I 

see  gathering. 

Piling  bottles 163 

Piquette,  see  lees,  marc,  piquet te . 
Pitchers,  see  utensils. 

Plastering 208 

common  in  Spain  and  South  of 

F  ranee 208 

objects ...  209 

chemical  effects 209 

effects  on  health 210 

report    of    committee   at    Mont- 

pellier 210 

of  conseil  des  armees 211 

instructions   of  French  Minister 

of  justice 211 

sherry  and  quantity  added.  115,  212 

chemical  reaction 213 

by  adding  water 213 

Pomace,      per     cent,    in     different 

grapes 200,  201 

see  lees,  marc,  piquet  te. 

stirring  in  vat 42 

Port  wine 108 

must,  fermentation,   maturity  of 

grapes 108 

filling  lagar,  stirring,  drawing  off, 

sorting  grapes 108 

treading 109 

Vizitelli's  description 109 

adding  alcohol 111,112 

storing,    racking 1 1 1 

storehouses 112 

mixing 1 1 2 

loses  color  in  wood 112 

alcoholic  strength  of 112 

becomes  weaker  by  evaporation  .112 


|  Page. 

i    Port  wine,  flavor 213 

Pousse 151 

Powdered  stone,  see  fining. 
Powders,  clarifying,  see  fining. 

Preserving  by  heat      80 . 

Pressing  and  press  wine,  red 47 

white  wine 56 

sweet  wine 107 

sediment 180 

see  different  wines. 

Pressings,  mixing,  different 46,  47 

Presses,  wine 46 

for  lees ...181 

1    Prices  of  grapes  in  California v 

i    Pricked  wine 140 

<    Proportion  of  juice  to  marc 200 

wine  to  grapes 201 

i    Pumps 97,  98 

hand,  see  utensils. 
Putrefaction,    putrid  fermentation, 
decomposition  .29,  87,  136,  152,  167 

;    Queues,  see  white  wine. 

•    Racking,-  objects  of 91 

first  time 91 ,  92 

leaving  wine  on  finings 91 

rules  for 91 ,  92 

new  red  wines 50,  92 

before  shipping 50 

old  red  wine .  .  . 51 ,  53,  93 

new  white  wine 93 

subsequent  rackings.    60,  93 

care    to  be  observed,  other   pre- 
cautions      94 

lees  must  not  be  disturbed 94 

different  methods 95 

i        by  bucket  and  funnel .    95 

implements  for  tipping  cask. ...    95 

without  contact  with  air 97 

pumps  and  siphons 97 

see  different  wines. 


234 


IND  EX . 


Page. 

Racks  for  bottles      164 

Rando  flavor  caused   by  heat    ....    80 

in  bottles 167 

Red  wine 39 

coloring  matter 39 

fermenting  tanks,  or  vats,  filling 

same 39 

open  vats,  closed  vats 4° 

best   practice 41 

hermetically  sealed  vats 42 

practice  in  the  Medoc 42 

stirring  pomace  in  vat 42 

souring  of  the  crust 43 

when  to  draw  from  vats 43 

duration  of  fermentation 44 

objections    to   long  vatting,  fine 

wines 44 

how  to  know  when  to  draw  from 

vats 45 

method   of  drawing  from    vats, 

filling  casks 45 

wine  presses 46 

pressing  and  press  wine 47 

practice  for  fine  wines 47 

treatment  of  new 47 

insensible  fermentation 47 

storing  new 48 

tasting,  filling  up  or  ulling ...   48 
summary  of  rules  for  treatment 

of 50 

of  old 51 

characteristics  of  age.  .....  51,  52 

grand  and  common  character- 
istics      52 

how  soon  bright 52 

summary  of  rules  for 53 

hygienic  effects  of 54 

how  differs  from  white 54 

should  be  sparingly  sulphured.. .    71 

fining,  see  gelatine. loo 

see  blood,  milk,  white  of  eggs.ioi 
red  wine  extracted  from  lees. .  180 


Page; 
Red  wine  put  in  colored  bottles .  . .  1 57 

with  earthy  flavor 128 

,    see  racking,  fining,  etc. 
Reducing  must  and  wine,  see  rules. 
Redwood,  see  casks,  vats. 

Rinsing  chain  for  casks 63 

Ripeness,  signs  of 4 

see  maturity. 
Ropiness.      viscous      fermentation 

29,  148.  167 

Ropy  wines  should  not  be  sulphured  71 

Rotten  casks 66 

Roughness 130 

improved  by  aging 85 

Rules  to  ascertain  weight  of  liquid .  206 

for  reducing  must 206 

for  sugaring  must 206 

for  fortifying  and  reducing  wine. 207 

to  reduce  with  water 207 

weaker   wine 208 

to  fortify    with    stronger  wine 
or  alcohol 208 

Saccharometer 7,8 

Saccharowyces  cerevisise 25 

conditions  of  life 26 

action  of  chemical  and  physical 
agents 28 

destroyed  by  heat  and  alcohol.. .   81 

Sacks  for  pressing  lees 181 

Salt  in  clarifying,  see  fining. 

Salicylic  acid '. 75 

Sand,  see  fining. 

Sassafras,  see  bouquet  artificial". 

Sealing  wax  for  casks 161 

to  remove 162 

Sea  voyage,  ettect  of,  bee  aging. 

should     nut     be    broken    in 

crushing 23 


INDEX , 


235 


Page. 

Seeds,  tannin  from. 103 

yield  fatty  matters 192 

Settling    and   skimming    must    for 

white  wine 75 

Sherry 115 

climate,  vintage,  crushing   gyp- 
sum  115 

pressing 1 16 

stemming,  fermenting,  racking.  .117 

fortifying 117,  123 

casks  in  ullage  r.nd  open    117 

a  nearly  dry   wine 118 

bodegas  or  storehouses 1 18 

seasoned  casks  alone  used 1 18 

changes  in  the  wine 118 

fino,  oloroso,  basto 118 

flowers 118 

vino  dulce,   or    sweet  wine,    and 

preparation 119 

vino  de  color,  or  color  wine,  and 

preparation,  arrope ...  1 19 

mature   wine 1 20 

solera  system 120 

establishing  a  solera 120 

standard   soleras 121 

drawing  the  wine 122 

blending  for  shipment 122 

formulas,  fining 1 23    ] 

influence  of  air 78 

flavor 213 

Shipments    of    wine    and    brandy 

from  California vi 

Shipping,  rack  before 50,  106 

wine  suitable  for 12,  82 

new  wine  or  must 83 

Shot,  do  not  clean  bottles  with ...  156    | 

Siphons 97 

of  glass 178 

to  clean 95    j 

Skimming  and  settling  must  (white 
wine) 55    j 


Page. 

Smoothness  increased  by  pressure.   42 

Solera,  see  sherry. 

Sorting  grapes 3,  108 

for  grand  white  wines 57 

Sour  casks 65 

Sourness 132,   140 

Spirit,    see   alcohol,    see    tables  in 
appendix. 

Stems,  effect  on  fermentation 20 

how  to  remove , 22 

when  to  ferment  with.  .....    20,  21 

increase  tannin 20,  21 

when  to  remove 20,  21 

effect  of  too  long  contact 21 

flavor ,    ...  21,  44,  131 

per  cent,  in  different  grapes    ...  201 

Stemmers 21 

Stemming,  diversity  of  opinion  ...    20 

effect  of 20 

proper  practice 20 

see  sherry 117 

and  crushing 20 

rapidity  of  operation 24 

special  practice .     24 

Stills,  assay 187,  190 

Stirring  implements,  fining.    103 

pomace,   see   aerating,    treading, 
vats,  port. 

Stockgilly,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 

Stone,  powdered,  see  fining. 

Storing  casks 61 

wine,  see  different  wines,  cellars, 
casks  for 67 

Straw  wines   108 

Strawberry,  see  bouquet  artificial. 

Substances  in  wine/see  composition. 

Succinic  acid 34,  194 

Sugar,  grape 6 

testing  for  in  must 8 

in  wine 190 

correction  for  temperature 10 


INDEX. 


Page,    i 

Sugar  and  alcohol II,  34    f 

in  must  of  dry  wines 1 1 ,  12,  56   j 

sweet  wines. .  .  . 57,  105   { 

weight  of  for  a  pound  of  alcohol.    16 

for  a  gallon  of  wine. .    16 

crystalized,  purity  of 16 

and  glucose  generally 32 

limits  of  in  fermentation 36 

necessary  to  growth  of  yeast ....   27 
not  all  converted  by  first  fermen- 
tation     45 

to  increase  in  grapes 105    ' 

in  must,  to  reduce,  rules 206 

see  must,  tables  in  appendix . 

Sugaring  and  watering  must    13 

carried  too  far     13 

effect  on  burgundy 14 

artificial  must    14 

nothing  gained  by  sugaring 15 

cost  of  glucose  wine 1 6 

experiment  with  glucose 17 

glucose  condemned 17 

rule  for  sugaring 206 

watering 1 8 

rule  for 207 

Sulphur    matches    or    bands,    bow 

made 70 

flavor,  how  caused 73 

how  removed 74 

Sulphurer  or  sulphur  burner 69 

Sulphuring  casks 62,  69,  70 

caution 71 

partly  empty 73    • 

wine 69,  7 1 

when  to  avoid 71 

from  lees 177 

must 69,  72 

white    wine  to   arrest    fermenta- 
tion   69,  72 

Sulphurous  acid 69    - 

arrests  fermentation  in  two  ways  69 


Page. 
Sulphurous  acid,  aqueous  solution 

"<" 74 

see  acetic  fermentation ,    31 

Sunlight,  influence  on  wine 82 

aging  by 82 

Sweet,  fortified,  liqueur  wines 105 

defined .....  105 

sweetness  of  must  for 57,  105 

natural  alcohol  in 105 

increasing  sugar  in  grapes 105 

without  fermentation 105 

care  required 105 

alcohol  necessary  to  keep 105 

fining,  rack  before   shipping    . . .  106 

boiling  must    106 

to  be  kept  on  lees 106 

sweet  muscat 107 

pressing 107 

marc,  use  of 107 

alcohol,  amount   to  add 107 

density  of 107 

Furmint  wine ....  107 

straw  wines 108 

should  not  be  sulphured 71 

influence  of  heat,  aging 79,  80 

of  sunlight 82 

casks  for 55 

see  air,  influence  of,  heat,  in- 
fluence of,  red  wine,  white 
wine,  port,  Madeira,  sherry. 

Table  wines,  see  treatment. 

of  substances  in  wine 186 

of  sugar,  density,  alcohol,  hy- 
drometers, see  appendix. 

Tail  wines,  see  white  wines. 

Tanks,  see  fermenting  tanks. 

Tannin  increased  by  stems 20,  21 

how  to  know  if  sufficient 21 

excess  of,  how  avoided. 130 

how  removed 100,  131 


INDEX. 


237 


Tage.    i 
Tannin,  when   added  in  fining..  .  .102 

tannic  acid 102,  193 

use  and  proportions  .      102 

from  the  vine  preferred.    ...    ...  103 

hovv  prepared  from  seeds 103 

from  stems.          103 

tannified  wine 103 

soaking  seeds  in  wine 103    ; 

Tare,  vin 151 

Tartaric  acid 193    < 

see  wine,    California,    European, 

acid  in . 
Tasters,  see  utensils. 

Tawny  color   by  age 77 

see  old  wine. 

flavor  by  heat 80    j 

in  bottles 167    j 

Temperature,     correction      for     in 

sugar  testing .    . 10    i 

effect  on  yeast 27,  81    i 

in  fermentation 37 

variation  of,  aging 78    < 

see  heat,  cellars,  hydrometers. 

Testing  for  sugar  in  must 8 

in  wine 1 90    , 

Tetes,  see  white  wines.  J 

Tin,  affected  by  wine 203 

Tipping  casks,  implements  for ....    95 
Tithe  wines,  see  cutting. 

Tourne,   vin 151 

Travail,  gofit  de 151 

Treading  in  vat 42,  109 

crushing   22,  109,  113,  1 16 

aerating  must    ...  23,  43 

Treatment,  general,  of  table  wines.  86 

sweet  wines 105 

deposits,  lees 86 

degeneration 86 

of  Madeira 113 

of  wine  in  bottles 165 

see  different  wines,  cellars,  rack- 
ing, fining,  aging,  etc. 


Tubes  to  clean 

Tuns,  see  casks,  cellars. 

Turbidity  in  bottles 

see  lees,  deposits,  etc. 


Page. 
••   95 

..166 


Ulling  the  casks  48 

utensils  for 49 

Unfermented  must 72 

clarifying,  care  of 73 

Unfortified  wines,  see  treatment. 

Utensils,  wooden  or  metal 202 

effect  of  wine  on  metals  202 

cleanliness  necessary 203 

different  cellar 204,  205 

pitchers  of  tin  and  wood 204 

wooden  vessels 204 

wooden  funnels 204 

adjustable  hoop 204 

bottle  baskets 205 

graduated  measures 205 

tin  tasters 205 

hand  pump . .  205 

for  removing  corks 205 

for  stirring,  fining 103 

for  ulling 49 

bung  screw 1 58 

bottle  washer 156 

bottle  drainers 1 56 

reservoir  for  filling  bottles 157 

corking  machines,  needles.  159,  160 

to  remove  wax 162 

capsuler.  162 

bottle  racks  and  bins 164 

decanting  basket 169 

instrument 169 

corkscrews 169 

presses,  wine 46 

lees 181 

sacks  for  pressing  lees 181 

for  tipping  a  cask 95 

rinsing  chain 63 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Utensils,  visitor  to  examine  casks. .   63 

crushers 23 

for  racking 95,  9^»  97 

for  picking  grapes i 

Variations  of  temperature,  aging. .    78 

Valeric  acid 1 94 

Vats,  see  fermenting  vats. 

Vatting,  long,  effects  of 44 

Ventilation,  see  cellars.    88 

Vessels,  see  utensils. 

Vine  flowers,  see  bouquet,  artificial. 

Vin  de  liqueur,  see  sweet  wines. 

monte,  tare,  lournt 1 51 

dulce,  see  sherry. 
Vinegar,  mother  of 30 

see  acetic  acid,  acetic  fermenta- 
tion. 

Vineyards,  acreage  of  in  California .    vi 
Vinification,    essentials    the    same 

everywhere vii 

Vinous  fermentation,  see  alcoholic 

fermentation. 

Viscous  fermentation 29 

Visitor  to  examine  casks 63 

Voyage,  effect  on  wine,  see  aging. 

Water,  necessary  to  growth  of  yeast  27 

Watering  must 18 

when  allowable 19 

rule  for 206 

wine,  rule  for 207 

Wax  for  sealing  corks 161 

how  removed 162 

Weakness  in  alcohol 133 

Weight  of  a  liquid,  to  ascertain  .  .  .206 

Whip  for  stirring 103 

White  of  eggs,  see  fining. 

White  wine 54 

from  red  and  white  grapes 54 

how  differs  from  red 54 


White  wine,  hygienic  effects 

process  of  making 

settling  and  skimming    .  .  . 
to  keep  sweet 


-  54 

•  55 

-  55 

•  55 

to  make  dry 55 

barrels  for 55 

filling  barrels  during  fermentation  55 

pressing  and  filling  casks 56 

different  kinds  of 56 

dry  white  wines    56 

mellow  white  wines 56 

sweet  white  wines 57 

see  sweet  wines. 

jrand  white  wines 57 

ripening  the  grapes,  ponrri.fi   ...    57 
tvtes,     centres,      queues,      head. 

middle,   tail 57 

treatment  of 58 

density  of  must  to  keep  sweet.        58 

dry  wines 59 

mellow  wines 59 

summary  of  rules,  racking 60 

sulphured  to  keep  from  turning 

yellow 69,  7 1 

bleached  with  sulphur 71 

with  blood,  milk 101 

fermentation  arrested  by  sulphur- 
ing     72 

fining,  see  gelatine 100 

isinglass 100 

white  of  eggs,  blood,  milk.  .    .  101 

extracted  from  lees    180 

with  earthy  flavor.    .;., 128 

matures  earlier  than  red 1 55 

mixing  with  red 175 

in  transparent  bottles 157 

Wild  taste 128 

Wine,  California,  shipments yi 

product vi 

alcohol  and  acid  in ix,  x,  220 

European,  alcohol  and  acid  in . .  .    xii 


INDEX . 


239 


Page. 
"\Vine  making,  essentials  every  where 

the  same vii 

plastering 208 

grand    and    common,   character- 
istics  52»  ^4 

red,  maturity  of 52 

new,  treatment  of 47 

old,    treatment  of 51,  53 

see  red  wine. 

why  sulphured 69 

how  sulphured 71 

when  to  be  sulphured 71 

effect  of  heat 78,  79,  80 

varies  in  different  casks 67 

dry  strength  of 1 1 

constantly  undergoing  changes .  .    76 

influence  of  heat 78 

preserving  by  heat 80 

weak,  see  influence  of  air. 
heat,  sunlight,  see  aging. 

suitable  for  shipment 82 

shipping  new 83 

kinds  preferred  by  gourmets 84 

which    gain     most     by.    aging 

processes 85 

diseased,  see  defects  and  diseases. 

what  liable  to  sour 140 

duration  of 1 52 

lees,  see  lees, 
from  lees,  see  lees. 

composition  of 185 

proportion  of  to  grapes 201 

rules  for  reducing  and  fortifying  .  207 
mixing,  see  cutting, 
bad,  often  due  to  want  of  clean- 
liness     203 

should  not  be  left  on  the  lees  and 

fining*, 178,  iSo 

unless  sweet .    106 

presses 46 


Page. 

Wine,  tannified 103 

see  aging,  white  wine,  red  wine, 
sweet,  fortified,  new  wine,  old 
.wine,  grand  wine,  general 
treatment,  frozen  wine,  the 
different  kinds. 

Wine  in  bottles,  bottling 154 

when  ready  for  bottling 154 

ho\v  long  to  remain  in  wood ....  1 54 

how  prepared  for  bottling 155 

most  favorable  time  for 155 

bottles,  washing,   bottle  washer, 

etc -' I56 

shot  must  not  be  used 1 56 

draining,  drainers 1 56 

rinsing  with  wine 156 

sorting 1 57 

different  kinds 1 57 

materials  in  glass 1 57 

filling,  adjusting  casks,  etc. .  .157 

reservoirs  for 1 57 

corks 158 

corking  machines,  needles.  .159,  160 

preparing  the  corks 160 

how  far  inserted 160 

sealing  corks 161 

sealing  wax  for,  how  made,  how 

applied 161 

coloring  the  wax 161 

capsules  and  capsuling 162 

pincers  for  removing  wax 162 

capsuler 162 

piling  bottles 162 

bottle  racks  and  bins 164 

treatment  of  wine  in  bottles.  .  .  .  165 

fermentation  in  the  bottles 165 

deposits,   turbidity 166 

bitterness,  acrity,  ropiness 167 

degeneration  and  putridity 167 

decaiitation 168 

corkscrews,  baskets 169 


240 


INDEX 


Page. 
Wine     in     bottles,     operation     of 

decanting 169 

decanting  instrument    169 

Wood,  wine,  how  long  to  remain  in.  154 
Wooden  utensils  preferable .......  202 

Yeast  plant 25 

functions  of 26 

surface  and  sedimentary 26 

conditions   of  life,  physical    and 

chemical 26 

temperature 27 


Page. 
Yeast  plant,  action  of  chemical  and 

physical  agents 28 

water,     sugar,     oxygen,     etc., 

necessary 27 

origin  of  ferments 31 

Yeasty  flavor,  see  lees,  flavor  of. 
Yellows,  see  white  wine,   sulphur- 
ing. 

Yield  of  juice  by  different  grapes.  .200 
wine  per  ton  of  grapes 201 

Zinc  affected  by  wine 202,  203 


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